The Emancipatory Character of Marx and Engels’ Moral Outlook

The moral outlook of Marx and Engels possesses a distinct emancipatory character, concretely embodied in three aspects: moral critique contains ideological emancipation, moral practice points toward institutional emancipation, and moral ideals pursue human emancipation.

马克思恩格斯道德观具有鲜明的解放性特质，具体体现在道德批判蕴含思想解放、道德实践指向制度解放、道德理想追求人类解放三个方面。

Moral Critique Contains Ideological Emancipation

道德批判蕴含思想解放

So-called moral critique is a value judgment and ethical examination of certain things or ideological concepts based on specific moral standards. Through their critique of various moral theories, Marx and Engels completed a comprehensive deconstruction of old moral concepts and ideologies, achieving profound ideological emancipation.

所谓道德批判，是以特定道德标准为准则，对某种事物或思想观念进行价值判断与伦理审视。马克思恩格斯通过对形形色色道德理论的批判，完成了对旧有道德观念和意识形态的全面解构，实现了思想上的深刻解放。

First, critiquing the illusory nature of religious morality. Marx and Engels’ moral critique first targeted the deceptive essence of Christian morality’s otherworldliness, holding that religion sanctifies real oppression through theological alienation, turning it into an “opium” that numbs the oppressed class. Religion alienates human essence into the phantom of a transcendent god, using a fabricated “heavenly happiness” to cover over worldly suffering, inducing the oppressed to acquiesce to the exploitative order. This critique completely tore apart the sacred cloak of religious morality, liberating the thoughts of the ruled class from the illusions of the otherworldly realm and forcing them to confront real social relations of oppression. As Marx stated, religious critique enables people to “pluck the imaginary flowers from the chain” and instead “pluck the living flower.” [1]1 Marx, “A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right: Introduction,” in which he argues that the criticism of religion is the prerequisite of all criticism.

一是批判宗教道德本质的虚幻性。马克思恩格斯的道德批判首先指向基督教道德彼岸性的欺骗本质，认为宗教通过神学异化将现实压迫神圣化，使之成为麻痹被压迫阶级的“鸦片”。宗教将人的本质异化为彼岸之神的幻影，以虚构的“天国幸福”掩盖现世苦难，诱使被压迫者安于剥削秩序。这一批判彻底撕碎了宗教道德的神圣外衣，将被统治阶级的思想从彼岸世界的幻象中解放出来，使其直面现实的社会压迫关系。正如马克思所言，宗教批判使人“摘去了装饰在锁链上的那些虚幻的花朵”，转而“伸手摘取真实的花朵”。

Second, critiquing the idealism of Hegel’s moral outlook. Marx’s proposal to “abolish philosophy” and Engels’ advocacy of the “end of philosophy” both aimed to break the closed system of Hegelian speculative philosophy, which was divorced from material reality and mired in abstract speculation. They criticized that Hegel distorted history into a “movement of concepts,” and that this idealist conception of history completely severed the connection between historical development and material reality. Against this inverted cognitive paradigm, Marx and Engels emphasized that “it is not consciousness that determines life, but life that determines consciousness,” [2]2 Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, where they formulate the materialist conception of history in opposition to Hegelian idealism. thoroughly negating the path of solving moral problems through abstract speculation and laying the methodological foundation of historical materialism for the proletariat’s moral critique.

二是批判黑格尔道德观的唯心性。马克思提出的“消灭哲学”和恩格斯主张的“哲学的终结”，均意在打破黑格尔思辨哲学脱离物质现实、陷入抽象思辨的封闭体系。他们批判指出，黑格尔将历史歪曲为“概念的前进运动”，这种唯心史观完全割裂了历史发展与物质现实的联系。针对这种颠倒现实的认知范式，马克思恩格斯强调，“不是从观念出发来解释实践，而是从物质实践出发来解释各种观念形态”，彻底否定了以抽象思辨来解决道德问题的路径，为无产阶级的道德批判奠定了历史唯物主义的方法论基础。

Third, critiquing the baseness of feudal hierarchical morality. Feudal morality, with its “most sordid interests—shameless greed, brutal pleasure, vile lust for fame, selfish plunder of public property” and “most despicable means—theft, coercion, fraud, betrayal,” [3]3 Engels, “The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State,” describing the base motives of the rising class in ancient societies. exposes the unavoidable stage-bound limitations in the evolution of human morality. In his essay “Debates on the Law on Thefts of Wood,” Marx pointed out that feudal law “sanctified” the monopoly rights of the aristocracy over resources, yet defined the poor’s helpless act of gathering dead branches as “theft,” shaping a false moral cognition at the level of social consciousness—namely, that the poor’s behavior was immoral and illegal, while the aristocracy’s monopolistic privileges were reasonable and sacrosanct. This critique shattered the false illusions created by feudal hierarchical ethics; the so-called hierarchical order and moral norms were merely means used by the ruling class to oppress and exploit the working people.

三是批判封建等级道德的卑鄙性。封建道德以“最卑下的利益——无耻的贪欲、狂暴的享受、卑劣的名利欲、对公共财产的自私自利的掠夺”和“最卑鄙的手段——偷窃、强制、欺诈、背信”，暴露出人类道德演进中难以回避的阶段性局限。马克思在《关于林木盗窃法的辩论》中指出，封建法律将贵族资源垄断权“神圣化”，却把贫民拾取枯枝的无奈之举定性为“盗窃”，在社会观念层面塑造了一种错误的道德认知，即贫民的行为是不道德的、违法的，而贵族的垄断特权则是合理的、神圣不可侵犯的。这一批判打破了封建等级伦理营造的虚假幻象，所谓的等级秩序和道德规范不过是统治阶级用来压迫和剥削劳动人民的手段。

Fourth, critiquing the hypocrisy of bourgeois morality. Based on a deep analysis of social reality, Marx and Engels revealed that capitalist morality possesses a serious hypocrisy. In capitalist society, workers appear able to “freely” sell their labor power, but in reality they are compelled to submit, being “free in the double sense” [4]4 Marx, Capital, Volume I, describing the double freedom of the worker: free from the means of production and free to sell labor power. of being free from the means of production. The seemingly equal contract signed between worker and capitalist is in fact a clever concealment of the exploitation of surplus value. The bourgeoisie also distorts moral concepts, reducing “human rights” to property rights, alienating “fraternity” into a law of the jungle of survival of the fittest, and turning morality into a tool for the multiplication of capital. This critique not only comprehensively settled accounts with old morality, revealing its class nature and economic roots, but also elevated moral issues from theoretical debate into a guide for revolutionary action to “change the world.”

四是批判资产阶级道德的虚伪性。马克思恩格斯基于对社会现实的深度剖析，揭示出资本主义道德具有严重的虚伪性。在资本主义社会，工人看似能“自由”出卖劳动力，实则是“自由得一无所有”地被迫服从。工人与资本家签订的看似平等的契约，实则是对剩余价值剥削的巧妙掩盖。资产阶级还扭曲道德观念，将“人权”简化为财产权，把“博爱”异化为弱肉强食的竞争法则，让道德沦为资本增殖的工具。这一批判既全面清算旧道德，揭示其阶级本质与经济根源，也把道德问题从理论上的争论上升为“改变世界”的革命行动指南。

Moral Practice Points Toward Institutional Emancipation

道德实践指向制度解放

So-called moral practice refers to people’s social activities guided by specific moral consciousness. Throughout their lives, Marx and Engels’ moral practice consistently revolved around the core goal of achieving the emancipation of social institutions through proletarian revolution.

所谓道德实践，是指人们在特定道德意识指导下的社会活动。马克思恩格斯终其一生的道德实践，始终围绕通过无产阶级革命实现社会制度解放这一核心目标展开。

Marx and Engels demonstrated the ultimate goal of institutional emancipation. Historical materialism shows that the fundamental contradiction between capitalist private ownership and socialized large-scale production inevitably leads to sharpened class antagonisms and periodic economic crises. This system, which both hinders the sustained development of productive forces and exploits workers through alienated labor, loses its historical rationality and moral legitimacy. The theory of surplus value further reveals that capital transforms labor into value accumulation by extracting surplus value, and this exploitative mechanism completely strips the bourgeois ideology of “free and equal exchange” of its ethical basis. Based on this, Marx and Engels arrived at the scientific conclusion of the “two inevitables,” namely, “the fall of the bourgeoisie and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.” [5]5 Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, concluding the first chapter. Its ultimate direction is to establish a communist social system through proletarian revolution, realizing the “association of free individuals” [6]6 Marx, Capital, Volume I, describing the future communist society as an association of free individuals. as the highest form of human emancipation.

马克思恩格斯论证了制度解放的终极目标。唯物史观表明，资本主义私有制与社会化大生产的根本矛盾必然导致阶级对立尖锐化和周期性经济危机。这种既阻碍生产力持续发展又通过异化劳动剥削工人的制度，丧失了历史合理性和道德正当性。剩余价值学说进一步揭示，资本通过榨取剩余价值将劳动转化为价值积累，这种剥削机制使资产阶级“自由平等交换”的意识形态彻底丧失了伦理依据。基于此，马克思恩格斯得出“两个必然”的科学论断，即“资产阶级的灭亡和无产阶级的胜利是同样不可避免的”。其终极指向是通过无产阶级革命建立共产主义社会制度，实现“自由人联合体”这一人类解放的最高形态。

Marx and Engels proposed the path for realizing institutional emancipation. First, develop social productive forces to lay the material foundation for institutional emancipation. The communist system must be built on the basis of highly developed productive forces, implementing the communist distribution principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.” [7]7 Marx, “Critique of the Gotha Programme,” describing the principle of distribution in the higher phase of communist society. Second, uphold the class struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie, which is the fundamental driving force for overthrowing the old system. Third, under the leadership of the proletarian political party, carry out the workers’ movement, providing organizational guarantees and models of struggle for institutional emancipation through practices such as founding the Communist League, establishing the International Workingmen’s Association, and summing up the experience of the Paris Commune. [8]8 The Communist League (1847–1852) was the first international communist organization; the International Workingmen’s Association (First International, 1864–1876) coordinated workers’ movements; the Paris Commune (1871) was the first working-class attempt to seize state power. Fourth, implement the principle of the “two radical ruptures,” namely, “the most radical rupture with traditional property relations… the most radical rupture with traditional ideas,” [9]9 Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto, section II. thoroughly destroying private ownership and its ideology while criticizing various false socialist trends, clearing ideological obstacles for institutional emancipation.

马克思恩格斯提出了制度解放的实现路径。一是发展社会生产力，为制度解放奠定物质基础。共产主义制度必须建立在高度发达的生产力基础上，实行“各尽所能、按需分配”的共产主义分配制度。二是坚持无产阶级反对资产阶级的阶级斗争，这是推翻旧制度的根本动力。三是在无产阶级政党领导下开展工人运动，通过创建共产主义者同盟、成立国际工人协会、总结巴黎公社革命经验等实践，为制度解放提供组织保障和斗争范式。四是贯彻“两个决裂”原则，即“同传统的所有制关系实行最彻底的决裂……同传统的观念实行最彻底的决裂”，在彻底摧毁私有制及其意识形态的同时，批判各种假社会主义思潮，为制度解放扫清思想障碍。

Marx and Engels established the main force for institutional emancipation. As the “most advanced and most revolutionary class” under the capitalist mode of production, the proletariat, due to its direct connection with advanced productive forces and its thorough propertyless status, possesses the revolutionary thoroughness to overthrow the old system. Marx and Engels believed that through theoretical arming and the dissemination of communist moral concepts, the class consciousness of the proletariat should be elevated into the universal mission of human emancipation, endowing the proletariat with a lofty moral significance. In revolutionary practice, the proletariat, relying on revolutionary moral qualities such as solidarity and cooperation, courage for sacrifice, and observance of discipline, overthrows bourgeois rule through organized class struggle, becoming the true gravedigger of the capitalist system.

马克思恩格斯确立了制度解放的主体力量。作为资本主义生产方式下“最先进、最革命的阶级”，无产阶级因其与先进生产力的直接结合及彻底的无产者地位，具有推翻旧制度的革命彻底性。马克思恩格斯认为，要通过理论武装，传播共产主义道德理念，使无产阶级的阶级意识升华为人类解放的普遍使命，赋予了无产阶级崇高的道德意义。在革命实践中，无产阶级凭借团结协作、勇于牺牲和遵守纪律等革命道德品质，以有组织的阶级斗争推翻资产阶级统治，成为资本主义制度的真正掘墓人。

Moral Ideals Pursue Human Emancipation

道德理想追求人类解放

So-called moral ideals represent the highest realm of individual and social moral pursuit, encompassing the shaping of an ideal personality and the aspiration for an ideal social moral condition, reflecting the unity of individual moral perfection and social moral progress. Marx and Engels took the realization of the emancipation of all humanity as their moral ideal. Here, the emancipation of all humanity equally includes both the emancipation of the individual person and the emancipation of the human species, constituting the unity of individual emancipation and species emancipation.

所谓道德理想，是个人和社会道德追求的最高境界，包含对理想人格的塑造与理想社会道德状况的向往，体现了个体道德完善与社会道德进步的统一。马克思恩格斯以实现全人类解放为道德理想，这里的全人类解放，同样包括人的个体解放和人的类解放两个方面，是个体解放和类解放的统一。

The emancipation of the individual person refers to the liberation of real, concrete individuals from alienated labor and reified relations that violate moral nature, developing into individuals with free individuality. Such individuals with free individuality can autonomously control their mode of labor, social relations, and free time, achieving the comprehensive development of physical and intellectual capacities. The realization of this emancipation requires three fundamental transformations: first, the socialization of the means of production, because “the producers can only become free when they are in possession of the means of production,” [10]10 Engels, “The Housing Question,” arguing that possession of the means of production is a precondition for freedom. which embodies moral fairness in the relations of ownership of the means of production; second, the thorough breaking of “the bondage of the old division of labor,” [11]11 Marx and Engels, The German Ideology, criticizing the forced division of labor under capitalism. eliminating the restrictions and constraints imposed by forced division of labor on people, making labor an autonomous activity conforming to moral requirements; third, shortening necessary labor time to provide the temporal possibility for individuals to develop their own interests, talents, and aptitudes.

人的个体解放，是指现实的、具体的人从违背道德本性的异化劳动和物化关系中解放出来，发展成为具有自由个性的人。这种自由个性的人能够自主支配其劳动方式、社会关系和自由时间，实现体力与智力的全面发展。这一解放的实现需要三重根本变革：一是实现生产资料的社会化，因为“生产者只有在占有生产资料之后才能获得自由”，这体现了生产资料占有关系上的道德公平；二是彻底打破“旧式分工的奴役”，消除强制分工对人的限制和束缚，使劳动成为符合道德要求的自主活动；三是缩短必要劳动时间，为个人发展自身兴趣、才能与爱好提供时间可能。

The emancipation of the human species refers to the complete restoration of the species-being of humanity, enabling humans to become masters of nature, society, and themselves. The core of this emancipation lies in restoring the “species-being” of humans, that is, “free, conscious activity.” When the “species-being” of humans is restored, it means that “the reconciliation of humanity with nature and the reconciliation of humanity with itself” is achieved, thereby reaching a state of moral harmony. The attainment of this state is manifested through emancipation at three levels. First, the emancipation of the relationship with nature. By mastering the laws of nature, humans become “masters of nature” and achieve harmonious coexistence with nature. Second, the emancipation of social relations. Communism, by abolishing the system of exploitation and class antagonism, establishes a “union of free individuals,” making humans “masters of their social association.” Third, the emancipation of the relationship with the self. Humans, freed from external coercion and interference, and on the basis of understanding their own essential needs, become “masters of themselves.”

人的类解放，是指实现人的类本质的完全复归，使人成为自然、社会和自身的主人。这一解放的核心在于恢复人的“类本质”，即“自由的有意识的活动”。当人的“类本质”得以恢复，也就意味着“人类与自然的和解以及人类本身的和解”得以实现，进而达成一种道德和谐的境界。这种境界的达成通过三个层面的解放来体现。一是实现自然关系的解放。人类通过掌握自然规律成为“自然界的主人”，实现与自然的和谐共生。二是实现社会关系的解放。共产主义通过消灭剥削制度和阶级对立，建立“自由人联合体”，使人成为“社会结合的主人”。三是实现自我关系的解放。人类摆脱外在的强制和干扰，在认识自身本质需求的基础上，成为“自己本身的主人”。

Moral critique, moral practice, and moral ideals together highlight the emancipatory character of Marx and Engels’ moral view. Moral critique clears away ideological obstacles for the realization of moral ideals; moral practice creates the material conditions for the realization of moral ideals; and moral ideals provide value orientation and goal guidance for moral critique and moral practice.

道德批判、道德实践和道德理想共同凸显马克思恩格斯道德观的解放性特质。道德批判为道德理想的实现扫除思想障碍，道德实践为道德理想的实现创造物质条件，而道德理想则为道德批判和道德实践提供价值导向和目标指引。

(The authors are a second-level professor at Jiangxi Normal University and a researcher at the Jiangxi Normal University Research Center for the Practice of Civilized Thought in the New Era, respectively.)

（作者系江西师范大学二级教授；江西师范大学江西新时代文明实践研究中心研究员）

Online editor: Huihui

网络编辑：慧慧