The Formation of Mao Zedong’s Historical Materialist Outlook

The October Revolution in Russia brought Marxism to China. Marxist historical materialism in China progressed from sporadic introduction to gradual deepening, organized and systematic widespread dissemination, and ultimately became the guiding ideology of the Communist Party of China. Studying the formation of Mao Zedong’s early historical materialist outlook is of great significance for tracing the formation of the historical outlook of Chinese Communists. The author believes that its formation process can be divided into three stages.

俄国十月革命为中国送来了马克思主义。马克思主义唯物史观在中国从零星介绍到逐步深入、有组织有系统地广泛传播，最终成为中国共产党的指导思想。研究毛泽东早期唯物史观的形成对于溯源中国共产党人历史观的形成意义重大，笔者认为其形成历程分三个阶段。

I. Embryonic Stage: April 1918 to August 1919. On April 18, 1918, Mao Zedong established the New People’s Study Society [1]1 The New People’s Study Society (新民学会) was a progressive student organization founded by Mao Zedong and others in Changsha in 1918, which later played a role in the early communist movement in Hunan. in Changsha, Hunan, with the aim of “renewing scholarship, honing moral character, and improving popular customs.” Thereafter, he continuously absorbed new knowledge and broadened his horizons. After the outbreak of the May Fourth Movement [2]2 The May Fourth Movement (五四运动) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal political and cultural movement that began on May 4, 1919, sparked by China’s weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, and is seen as a key turning point in modern Chinese history., Mao Zedong was deeply affected, and the historical materialist outlook in his thinking began to take embryonic shape.

一、萌芽阶段：1918年4月至1919年8月。1918年4月18日，毛泽东在湖南长沙成立以“革新学术，砥砺品行，改良人心风俗”为宗旨的新民学会，此后，他不断吸纳新知、开阔视野。五四运动爆发后，毛泽东深受触动，其观念中的唯物史观初见雏形。

On July 14, 1919, Mao Zedong pointed out in the *Xiangjiang Review* [3]3 The *Xiangjiang Review* (湘江评论) was a weekly newspaper founded and edited by Mao Zedong in Changsha in July 1919, which promoted new ideas and social reform.: “What is the biggest problem in the world? The problem of eating is the biggest. What force is the strongest? The force of the united people is the strongest.” Historical materialism emphasizes that people must first solve the material problems of survival, such as “eating, drinking, shelter, and clothing.” “The problem of eating is the biggest” indicates that Mao Zedong began to pay attention to the material life of the masses, saw that social material life is the source of social transformation, and germinated the idea within Marxist historical materialism that social being determines social consciousness.

1919年7月14日毛泽东在《湘江评论》中指出：“世界什么问题最大？吃饭问题最大。什么力量最强？民众联合的力量最强。”唯物史观强调人应首要解决“吃、喝、住、穿”的物质生存问题。“吃饭问题最大”表明毛泽东开始注重人民群众的物质生活方面，看到了社会物质生活是社会改造的源头，萌发了马克思主义唯物史观中社会存在决定社会意识的思想。

From July 21 to August 4, 1919, Mao Zedong published a long article, *The Great Union of the Popular Masses* [4]4 *The Great Union of the Popular Masses* (民众的大联合) is a series of articles by Mao Zedong published in the *Xiangjiang Review* in 1919, arguing for mass organization as a revolutionary force., in the *Xiangjiang Review*, issued in three installments. The article first divides different classes based on wisdom and ignorance, wealth and poverty, strength and weakness, using class antagonism as the theoretical basis for the great union of the popular masses, arguing that the ruling class relies on knowledge, money, and force to maintain its special interests. From this, he points out that the masses of a country are more numerous than the powerful, elucidating the possibility and necessity of the great union of the popular masses, which aligns with the core view of historical materialism that “the masses create history.” Second, he proposes that humans are “geniuses capable of forming groups” and “able to organize society,” calling on all social groups, regardless of circumstances and occupations, to take small unions of the masses as the foundation to confront the opposing powerful and seek common interests. Finally, he concludes that the root cause of the failure of the Xinhai Revolution [5]5 The Xinhai Revolution (辛亥革命) of 1911 overthrew the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China, but Mao and later Communists criticized it for failing to mobilize the masses or achieve thorough social change. lay merely in its imitation of bourgeois revolution, lacking a deep mass base. *The Great Union of the Popular Masses*, using the basic method of Marxist historical materialism—class analysis—as distinct from abstract theories of human nature, takes the great union of the popular masses as the “golden key” to historical evolution, expressing the masses’ desire for freedom and equality. This marks Mao Zedong’s realization that the masses are the driving force of social development and also the logical starting point for the formation of his thinking on the revolutionary united front.

毛泽东于7月21日至8月4日在《湘江评论》上发表长文《民众的大联合》，分三篇刊出。文中首先根据智愚、贫富、强弱划分不同阶级，以阶级对立作为民众大联合的理论依据，认为统治阶级依赖知识、金钱、武力维护其特殊利益。由此，他指出一国民众比强权者要多，阐明了民众大联合的可能性及必要性，这契合了唯物史观中“人民群众创造历史”这一核心观点。其次，他提出人是“能群”“能够组织社会”的天才，呼吁社会各群体不分境遇与职业，应以群众的小联合为始基与对立面的强权者相对抗，谋求共同利益。最后，他总结辛亥革命失败的根源在于仅是效颦资产阶级革命，而无深厚的群众基础。《民众的大联合》以异于抽象人性论的马克思主义唯物史观的基本方法——阶级分析法把民众的大联合作为历史进化的“金钥匙”，表达民众对自由与平等的渴求，标志着毛泽东意识到人民群众是社会发展的动力，亦是其革命统一战线思想形成的逻辑起点。

The raising of the problem of eating and the union of the masses highlights that Mao Zedong had already come into contact with the real premises from which historical materialism proceeds, marking his initial break from the confines of the old historical outlook and his acceptance of historical materialism.

吃饭问题和民众联合的提出凸显毛泽东已经接触到唯物史观赖以出发的现实前提，标志着毛泽东开始摆脱旧历史观的藩篱，接受唯物史观。

II. Formative Stage: September 1919 to December 1920. After the May Fourth Movement, numerous different theories and propositions existed within domestic intellectual circles. After carefully comparing various propositions and theories, Mao Zedong completed the transformation of his thought, accelerating his turn toward historical materialism both subjectively and in practice.

二、形成阶段：1919年9月至1920年12月。五四运动后，国内思想界中存在众多不同的理论、主张。毛泽东在认真比较各种主张、理论后，完成了其思想的转型，从主观上和实践上加快了向唯物史观转变的步伐。

First, forming the logic of “economic analysis.” In November 1919, the suicide of Zhao Wuzhen [6]6 Zhao Wuzhen (赵五贞) was a young woman in Changsha who committed suicide in 1919 to protest an arranged marriage, sparking public debate on feudal customs. in Changsha due to dissatisfaction with an arranged marriage drew high social attention. Mao Zedong published articles in the *Women’s Bell* [7]7 The *Women’s Bell* (女界钟) was a progressive women’s journal in early 20th-century China. and *Ta Kung Pao* [8]8 *Ta Kung Pao* (大公报) was a major independent Chinese newspaper founded in 1902, known for its liberal and reformist stance., stating that “love is only an accessory; the central relationship lies in the economy.” Using the logic of “economic analysis,” he recognized that “the major aspect of the social system is the economic system.” This marks the formation of Mao Zedong’s historical materialist view that the economic base determines the superstructure.

第一，形成“经济分析”逻辑。1919年11月，长沙赵五贞因不满包办婚姻自杀事件引起社会高度关注，毛泽东在《女界钟》《大公报》上发文指出，“恋爱只算附属，中心关系，还在经济”，以“经济分析”的逻辑认识到了“社会制度之大端为经济制度”，这标志着毛泽东形成了经济基础决定上层建筑的唯物史观。

Second, emphasizing material production. Mao Zedong discovered a disconnect between what was taught in schools and the needs of society, leading to “the abilities imparted being cast into a void.” To eliminate this defect, a kind of “economic work” was needed. He advocated for production activities beneficial to the social economy, insisting that work must be “productive” and “related to actual life.” Marxist historical materialism points out that the first historical act of humans in solving fundamental material problems is “the production of the means to satisfy these needs, i.e., the production of material life itself,” that is, examining social structure and the laws of historical development on the basis of material production. The shift from “the problem of eating is the biggest” to emphasizing “material production” highlights, from the perspective of relations of production, that Mao Zedong had already acquired the ability to apply historical materialism in practice.

第二，注重物质生产。毛泽东发现学校所学与社会之需出现断层的现象，导致“所施之能力，掷诸虚牝”。欲消除此弊端，须有一种“经济的工作”，他倡议开展有利于社会经济的生产活动，工作须为“生产的”与“实际生活的”。马克思主义唯物史观指出人在解决物质根本问题的首个历史活动为“生产满足这些需要的资料，即生产物质生活本身”，即以物质生产为基础考察社会结构和历史发展规律。从“吃饭问题最大”到注重“物质生产”的转变，从生产关系角度凸显了毛泽东已具备将唯物史观应用于实践的能力。

Third, clarifying the “ideological hotchpotch.” On March 14, 1920, Mao Zedong wrote in a letter to Zhou Shizhao [9]9 Zhou Shizhao (周世钊) was a close friend and classmate of Mao Zedong, later a scholar and educator.: “Now, regarding various isms and various doctrines, I have not yet obtained a relatively clear concept.” At that time, Mao Zedong was in a process of discerning, comparing, and choosing among various ideas. Ardent patriotic fervor prompted Mao Zedong to read widely, devouring Marxist theoretical books with great eagerness, clearing the confusion in his thinking, and ultimately “seizing its treasures while discarding its dross.” Mao Zedong mentioned that three books—*Class Struggle* [10]10 *Class Struggle* (阶级斗争) likely refers to a Chinese translation of a Marxist work on class theory, possibly by Karl Kautsky, which was influential among early Chinese Marxists., *The Communist Manifesto*, and *A History of Socialism* [11]11 *A History of Socialism* (社会主义史) is a book by the British socialist Thomas Kirkup, translated into Chinese and widely read by early Chinese communists.—had a tremendous impact on him. He stated that by the summer of 1920, he had become a Marxist “in theory and to a certain degree in action.”

第三，澄清“思想大杂烩”。1920年3月14日，毛泽东在《致周世钊信》中说，“现在我于种种主义，种种学说，都还没有得到一个比较明了的概念”。当时，毛泽东处在对各种思想的鉴别、比较与抉择过程。炽烈的爱国热忱促使毛泽东广泛涉猎，如饥似渴地阅读马克思理论书籍，廓清了思想上的混沌，最终“挈其瑰宝而绝其缁磷”。毛泽东提到《阶级斗争》《共产党宣言》《社会主义史》这三本书籍对其影响巨大，自述于1920年夏天在“理论上和一定程度的行动上”成为一名马克思主义者。

Fourth, promoting ideological dissemination. Mao Zedong deeply realized the importance of spreading ideas. In July 1920, Mao Zedong returned to Hunan to prepare for the establishment of the Cultural Book Society [12]12 The Cultural Book Society (文化书社) was a bookstore and distribution network founded by Mao Zedong in Changsha in 1920 to spread Marxist and progressive literature., distributing Marxist works and revolutionary publications. As a platform and base for spreading Marxism in Hunan, the Cultural Book Society achieved the goal of “making all kinds of valuable new publications widely available throughout the province, giving everyone the opportunity to read them.” Thereafter, Marxist publications sprang up like bamboo shoots after a spring rain, and progressive groups continuously emerged, fueling the spread of Marxist thought.

第四，推动思想传播。毛泽东深刻意识到思想传播的重要性。1920年7月，毛泽东回湘筹备文化书社，发行马克思主义著作和革命刊物。文化书社作为在湖南传播马克思主义的阵地和平台，实现“使各种有价值之新出版物，广布全省，人人有阅读之机会”。此后，研究马克思主义的出版物如雨后春笋，进步团体不断涌现，为传播马克思主义思想推波助澜。

Fifth, determining the plan for Party building. On August 13, 1920, Cai Hesen [13]13 Cai Hesen (蔡和森) was a founding member of the Communist Party of China and a close comrade of Mao Zedong, known for his theoretical contributions. wrote to Mao Zedong, pointing out in the letter that historical materialism was the “effective prescription” for solving China’s problems, and that a political party was the “initiator, leader, vanguard, and combat headquarters” and the “nerve center of the proletarian movement.” On September 16, Cai Hesen wrote again, reiterating that “Party organization is very important,” and suggested learning from the Russian Bolshevik experience of Party building to establish a Party in China. Mao Zedong accepted this proposal. In November, he joined with He Shuheng [14]14 He Shuheng (何叔衡) was a founding member of the Communist Party of China and a participant in the First National Congress of the CPC. and others in Hunan to establish the “Changsha Communist Group,” beginning preparations for Party building under the guidance of historical materialism.

第五，确定建党方案。1920年8月13日，蔡和森致信毛泽东，信中指出唯物史观是解决中国问题的“良方”，政党乃是“发动者、领袖者、先锋队、作战部”和“无产阶级运动的神经中枢”。9月16日，蔡和森再次致信重申“党的组织是很重要的”，建议学习俄国布尔什维克建党经验，在国内建党。毛泽东接受了这一提议，11月他在湖南联合何叔衡等人建立“长沙共产主义小组”，开始了唯物史观指导下的建党准备。

Sixth, abandoning reformist revolution. In 1920, Mao Zedong led the Hunan Self-Government Movement [15]15 The Hunan Self-Government Movement (湖南自治运动) was a 1920 campaign led by Mao Zedong and others to achieve provincial autonomy in Hunan, which ultimately failed due to warlord opposition., which encountered numerous obstacles due to the corruption of the political situation. On November 25, Mao Zedong wrote to three friends, all expressing a desire to take a different path. In a letter to Li Si’an [16]16 Li Si’an (李思安) was a Chinese revolutionary and early member of the Communist Party of China., he proposed that “some people of ambition must engage in actual transformation,” and “find another way, create another environment.” In a letter to Xiang Jingyu [17]17 Xiang Jingyu (向警予) was a prominent early female member of the Communist Party of China and a leader in the women’s movement., he emphasized: “The path of political reform can be said to be utterly hopeless. We have no choice but to ignore everything, open another path, and create another environment.” In a letter to Luo Jie [18]18 Luo Jie (罗璈阶) was a Chinese educator and early communist sympathizer., he proposed “creating a new atmosphere with power,” marking his abandonment of reformist movements in favor of the class struggle of historical materialism as the method of social change.

第六，放弃改良革命。1920年，毛泽东领导湖南自治运动，因时局腐败，这一运动遭受重重阻碍。11月25日，毛泽东致信三位友人皆表达欲另辟道路，在《致李思安信》中提出“须有一些志士从事实际的改造”，“另想办法，另造环境”。在《致向警予信》中，他强调：“政治改良一涂，可谓绝无希望。吾人惟有不理一切，另辟道路，另造环境一法。”在《致罗璈阶信》中提出“要造成一种有势力的新空气”，标志其在社会变革方式上放弃改良运动向唯物史观的阶级斗争转折。

Seventh, turning to violent revolution. At that time, Dewey’s pragmatism, Russell’s reformism, and Kropotkin’s anarchism were prevalent in China. The “harmonious and gradual” moderate reform had many adherents, who attempted to eliminate class contradictions and maintain social stability through “division of labor and cooperation” by popularizing education to make the rulers spontaneously “turn their hearts to goodness.” On December 1, 1920, in a letter to Xiao Xudong, Cai Linbin, and other comrades in France [19]19 Xiao Xudong (萧旭东) and Cai Linbin (蔡林彬) were Chinese students in France; Cai Linbin is another name for Cai Hesen., Mao Zedong criticized the moderate revolution of Russell, Xiao Zisheng [20]20 Xiao Zisheng (萧子晟) was a Chinese student in France who advocated moderate reformist ideas., and others who advocated “revolution using education as a tool,” and pointed out sharply that under the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, all revolutions, including those in education, were empty talk. This highlights a clear shift in his thinking, forming a political consciousness that “the question of political power is the fundamental question of revolution.” On the same day, in a letter to Cai Hesen and others, Mao Zedong refuted reformism and “unorganized” anarchism, breaking free from the shackles of the “theory of mutual aid” and class conciliation, and established the idea of violent revolution, believing that violent revolution was the inevitable choice for overthrowing the exploiting classes and carrying out social transformation. He resolutely and decisively chose historical materialism.

第七，转向暴力革命。当时，杜威的实用主义、罗素的改良主义及克鲁泡特金的无政府主义在国内盛行，“和而缓”的温和改良拥趸极多，企图通过普及教育使当权者自发“回心向善”来消弭阶级矛盾和“分工协作”维持社会的稳定。1920年12月1日，毛泽东在《毛泽东给萧旭东蔡林彬并在法诸会友》中批判了罗素、萧子晟等“以教育为工具的革命”的温和革命，并一针见血地指出在资产阶级专政下，含教育在内的一切革命皆为空谈。这凸显了其思想的鲜明转变，形成了“政权问题是革命的根本问题”的政权意识。同日，毛泽东在《致蔡和森等》信中驳斥改良主义和“无组织”的无政府主义，突破了“互助论”和阶级调和论的束缚，确立了暴力革命思想，认为暴力革命乃推翻剥削阶级进行社会改造之必然选择，毅然决绝地选择了唯物史观。

III. The Stage of Establishment: January 1921 to July 1921. On January 1, 1921, Mao Zedong engaged in a heated discussion at the Changsha membership meeting of the New People’s Study Society [21]21 The New People’s Study Society (新民学会) was a progressive student organization founded by Mao Zedong and Cai Hesen in Changsha in 1918, which later evolved into a key group advocating Marxism and revolution. on the question of transforming China and the world. He summarized the ideological divergences that had existed since the Montargis Conference [22]22 The Montargis Conference refers to a meeting of Chinese students in France, held in Montargis in July 1920, where debates occurred between advocates of Marxism and other reformist or anarchist positions., sharply criticized various anti-Marxist social currents, and pointed out that social policy was merely “a policy of patching up leaks, not a viable method.” He explicitly rejected non-scientific socialist ideas such as mild reformism, social democracy, and anarchism, advocated “following the Russian model with democratic means,” and proposed using “communism by radical methods” to establish a “communist republic” under the people’s democratic dictatorship. He put forward the new purpose of “transforming China and the world,” marking the New People’s Study Society as an organization with a political character.

三、确立阶段：1921年1月至1921年7月。1921年1月1日，毛泽东在新民学会长沙会员大会上就改造中国与世界的问题进行了热烈的讨论，总结了蒙达尼会议以来存在的思想分歧，尖锐批评了各种反马克思主义的社会思潮，指出社会政策不过是“补苴罅漏的政策，不成办法”，明确摒弃温和改良主义、社会民主主义、无政府主义等非科学社会主义思想，主张“启民主用俄式”，宜用“激烈方法的共产主义”建立人民民主专政的“共产主义的共和国”，提出“改造中国与世界”的新宗旨，标志着新民学会已成为具有政治性质的组织。

On January 21, in his “Letter to Cai Hesen” [23]23 Cai Hesen (1895–1931) was a close comrade of Mao Zedong and an early leader of the Chinese Communist Party, known for his theoretical contributions to Marxism in China., Mao Zedong explicitly stated that historical materialism was “the philosophical foundation of our Party.” This signified that Mao Zedong had established historical materialism in his thought. Thereafter, Mao Zedong, taking historical materialism as the guide to action for revolution and construction, continuously advanced new practices domestically, guiding the work of Party building with the historical materialist ideas of violent revolution and the people’s democratic dictatorship. In July 1921, Mao Zedong traveled from Hunan to Shanghai to attend the First National Congress of the CPC [24]24 The First National Congress of the CPC, held in Shanghai in July 1921, formally established the Chinese Communist Party, with Mao Zedong as one of the 13 delegates., becoming one of the founding delegates, which marked the formal formation of Mao Zedong’s historical materialism in the sense of “the subjective being objectified.”

1月21日，毛泽东在《致蔡和森》中明确提出，唯物史观乃“吾党哲学的根据”。这标志着毛泽东在思想上已确立了唯物史观。此后，毛泽东以唯物史观作为革命建设的行动指南不断在国内推进新的实践，以暴力革命和人民民主专政的唯物史观思想指导建党工作。1921年7月，毛泽东从湖南到上海，出席一大，成为建党代表之一，标志毛泽东“主观见之于客观”上的唯物史观正式形成。

In a word, the formation of Mao Zedong’s historical materialism was the result of his “challenge of today’s self against yesterday’s self,” and its formation was a dynamic, continuously constructing process. The formation process of Mao Zedong’s early historical materialism is a microcosm of the transformation of Chinese thought. Holding high the banner of patriotism, Mao Zedong searched arduously and tortuously, and his view of history gradually shifted toward historical materialism, achieving a fundamental transformation from revolutionary democracy to communism. Amid the complex and entangled revolutionary situation, Mao Zedong saw through the essence, clarified the direction of development, recognized the scientific value of historical materialism, sincerely embraced it and took it as a guiding principle, firmly believed in Marxism in thought, and devoted himself to the Chinese revolutionary cause in practice, ultimately becoming a Marxist.

一言以蔽之，毛泽东唯物史观的形成乃其“今日之我与昨日之我挑战”的结果，其形成是一个动态的、不断构建的过程。毛泽东的早期唯物史观的形成历程是中华思想变革的缩影。毛泽东高擎爱国主义战旗在曲折艰难中上下求索，其历史观逐步向唯物史观转变，实现了从革命民主主义到共产主义的根本转变。在错综复杂的革命形势下，毛泽东看清本质、明确发展方向，认同唯物史观的科学价值并衷心服膺、奉为圭臬，在思想上坚定信仰马克思主义，实践上投身于中国革命工作，最终成为一名马克思主义者。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗