Grasping Marx and Engels’ Thought on Ecology and Technology

Since the concept of sustainable development was proposed, protecting the ecological environment has increasingly become a global consensus. Whether examining the history and causes of ecological environmental destruction or seeking to establish methods and countermeasures for ecological environmental protection, technology and its use are both the focus and the key. We must engage in deep-level reflection on the relationship between ecology and technology and related content, grasping their dialectical unity. This thought on ecology and technology, which deeply integrates the two, finds a relatively mature expression in Marxism, which has conducted detailed discussions on humanity, nature, and technology.

自可持续发展概念提出以来，保护生态环境已越发成为全球共识。不论是梳理深究生态环境破坏的历史和缘由，还是找寻确立生态环境保护的方法与对策，科技及其使用均是重点与关键。我们要对生态与科技关系及相关内容进行深层次思考，把握其辩证统一关系。这种将二者深度融通的生态科技思想，在对人、自然与科技进行过细致讨论的马克思主义中有着较成熟的体现。

Technology and the dialectical unity of humanity and nature

科技同人与自然辩证统一

Marx and Engels summarized technology as “the theoretical and practical relationship of humanity to nature,” [1]1 Karl Marx, “Economic Manuscripts of 1861–63,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 30 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1988), p. 269. [Paraphrased from Marx’s discussion of technology as the “active relation of man to nature.”] with technology and the dialectical unity of humanity and nature. First, nature is the foundation and prerequisite for humanity and its activities. Marx emphasized, “Nature is, in one sense, the source of the means of life for labor, that is, the objects of labor without which labor cannot exist; in another, narrower sense, it provides the means of life in the sense of the physical subsistence of the worker himself.” [2]2 Karl Marx, *Capital*, vol. 1, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 35 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1996), p. 189. [Paraphrased from Marx’s discussion of nature as providing means of subsistence and means of production.] Second, humanity develops technology in the process of understanding and transforming nature. Marx pointed out that, based on sensuous activity, humanity establishes a real, objective, sensuous world, begins to summarize the laws of nature, and accordingly further develops production, thereby gradually and systematically forming technology. [3]3 This summarizes Marx’s argument in *The German Ideology* and the *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844* that technology arises from sensuous, practical human activity. Third, technology can enable nature to better realize its value. Technology not only greatly expands humanity’s perspective for understanding nature and enhances the efficiency and intensity of humanity’s extraction of resources from nature, but also incorporates natural factors previously difficult to utilize into the production process. Moreover, through means such as improving the utilization rate of natural resources, reducing their consumption, and promoting the transformation of waste, it continuously develops new sources of value in nature. Finally, technology should promote the dual emancipation of humanity and nature through rational material exchange. The immense power of technology has aroused humanity’s desire to conquer nature, thereby continuously deteriorating the relationship between the two, creating a “rift in the metabolic interaction.” [4]4 Karl Marx, *Capital*, vol. 3, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 37 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1998), p. 879. [Marx uses the term “metabolic rift” (Stoffwechsel) to describe the disruption of natural cycles under capitalism.] However, “we do not rule over nature like a conqueror rules over a foreign people… on the contrary, we, with our flesh, blood, and brain, belong to nature and exist within it.” [5]5 Friedrich Engels, *Dialectics of Nature*, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 25 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1987), p. 461. [Paraphrased from Engels’s critique of the “conqueror” view of nature.]

马克思恩格斯将科技概述为“人对自然界的理论关系和实践关系”，科技同人与自然辩证统一。首先，自然是人及其活动的基础与前提。马克思强调，“自然界一方面这样在意义上给劳动提供生活数据，即没有劳动加工的对象，劳动就不能存在，另一方面，自然界也在更狭隘的意义上提供生活数据，即提供工人本身的肉体生存所需的数据”。其次，人在认识与改造自然的过程中发展出科技。马克思指出，依据感性活动，人建立起现实的对象性的感性世界，并开始总结自然界规律且据之进一步发展生产，进而逐渐系统地形成科技。再次，科技可令自然更好实现价值。科技不仅极大拓展了人认识自然的视角，提升了人从自然中获取资源的效率与力度，还将以往难以利用的自然因素纳入生产过程之中，更可通过提高自然资源的利用率、减少其消耗以及促使废弃物转化等途径，不断在自然界开发新的价值源泉。最后，科技应凭合理物质变换推进人与自然双重解放。科技的巨大力量激起了人征服自然的欲望，进而使二者关系不断恶化，造成“物质变换裂缝”。但是，“我们决不像征服者统治异族人那样支配自然界，相反，我们连同我们的肉、血和头脑都是属于自然界和存在于自然界之中的”。

Marx and Engels emphasized that humanity and nature must engage in rational material exchange and pointed out that humanity should respect and protect nature. In this process of material exchange, technology is a “revolutionary force in the highest sense”: [6]6 Karl Marx, “Speech at the Anniversary of the *People’s Paper*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 14 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980), p. 655. [Marx describes technology as a revolutionary force.] it not only accelerates the improvement of the means of production, greatly promotes the development of productive forces, and thereby drives changes in relations of production and the superstructure, providing ample material preparation for realizing the rational material exchange between humanity and nature; it also deepens human understanding, emphasizing the unity and integrity of humanity and nature on the basis of breaking down feudal, ignorant, and backward concepts, awakening human concern for nature and reflection on the future living environment; and thus efficiently facilitates the transformation of the relationship between humanity and nature from disorder to order, powerfully advancing the ultimate realization of the dual emancipation of both.

马克思恩格斯强调，人与自然要合理进行物质变换，并指出人应尊重、保护自然。而在此物质变换过程中，科技是“最高意义上的革命力量”：它不仅加速了生产工具的改进，极大推动了生产力的发展，进而带动了生产关系与上层建筑的变革，为实现人与自然的合理物质变换提供了充足的物质准备；还深化了人的认识，在破除封建、愚昧、落后观念的基础上强调了其与自然的统一性和整体性，唤起人对自然的关注与对未来生存环境的思考；进而高效促成了人与自然关系由无序到有序的转变，有力推进了二者双重解放的最终实现。

Technology subordinated to capital exacerbates dual harm to humanity and nature

受制于资本的科技加剧人与自然的双重损害

If technology is controlled by capital, capital will “utilize science, appropriate science for the purposes of the production process,” [7]7 Karl Marx, *Economic Manuscripts of 1861–63*, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 34 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1994), p. 29. [Paraphrased from Marx’s discussion of capital’s appropriation of science.] not only depriving nature, which is humanity’s “inorganic body,” [8]8 Karl Marx, *Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844*, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 3 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1975), p. 276. [Marx defines nature as humanity’s “inorganic body.”] but also obscuring humanity’s essence.

如果科技为资本所控制，资本会“为了生产过程的需要，利用科学，占有科学”，不仅将剥夺作为人“无机的身体”的自然，还将蒙蔽人的本质。

First, technology subordinated to capital deprives nature. When examining the development of industrial cities, Engels pointed out that capitalists’ pursuit of profit only leads to the blind expansion of mechanized production scale, which in turn causes the overexploitation of limited natural resources and the unhindered discharge of waste gases and wastewater, ultimately resulting in severe environmental pollution. More critically, to obtain greater profits, capitalist countries continuously use technology to expand their greed, treating the world’s resources as their own raw materials, thereby plundering and occupying other countries or regions, causing the transfer and spread of ecological environmental destruction to a global scale. Regarding this, Marx concluded with pain, “The victory of technology seems to have been won at the cost of moral corruption. As humanity increasingly controls nature… even the pure light of science seems only to shine against the dark background of ignorance.” [9]9 Karl Marx, “Speech at the Anniversary of the *People’s Paper*,” in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 14, p. 656. [Paraphrased from Marx’s critique of technological progress under capitalism.]

首先，受制于资本的科技剥夺自然。恩格斯在考察工业城市发展状况时指出，资本家对利润的追求只会造成机械化生产规模的盲目扩大，进而使有限的自然资源被过度开采，废气、废水不加阻拦排放，最终导致环境严重污染。更严峻的是，为获取更大利润，资本主义国家不断利用科技扩展其贪婪，将全世界资源看作自己的原材料，进而展开对其他国家或地区的掠夺与侵占，致使生态环境破坏转移并扩散至全球范围。对此，马克思不无痛心地总结道，“技术的胜利，似乎是以道德的败坏为代价换来的。随着人类愈益控制自然……甚至科学的纯洁光辉仿佛也只能在愚昧无知的黑暗背景上闪耀”。

Second, technology subordinated to capital obscures humanity’s essence. In capitalist society, natural resources such as minerals, trees, rivers, and land are possessed and controlled by a few capitalists through technology and wealth, and the labor power of workers gradually becomes a commodity. In this situation, workers’ production activities are no longer governed by themselves but are employed by capitalists to complete wealth accumulation for them. Workers’ exploitation of nature is not based on conscious willingness but is forced upon them by capitalists, who, driven by the need to maintain survival, use them to deprive nature. Coupled with capitalists manipulating technology driven by profit, this ultimately leads to an antagonistic relationship between workers and nature.

其次，受制于资本的科技蒙蔽人的本质。在资本主义社会中，自然界的矿产、树木、河流、土地等被少数资本家依凭科技及财富占有并控制，劳动者的劳动力也逐渐成为商品。在此情形下，劳动者的生产活动便不再被自我所支配，而是在资本家的雇佣下为其完成财富积累。劳动者对自然的开采并不建立在自觉自愿的基础之上，而是迫于维持生存需要在资本家利用下不得已对自然进行剥夺，加之资本家在利润驱使下操纵科技，最终导致劳动者与自然的关系发生对立。

Technology subordinated to capital will destroy the harmony between humanity and nature, plunging the relationship between the two into an abnormal state, forming a rift in the metabolic interaction, and ultimately leading to dual harm.

受制于资本的科技会破坏人与自然之间的和谐，使二者间的关系陷入一种非正常状态，形成物质变换的断裂，最终将导致双重损害。

Communist technology serving humanity promotes the dual emancipation of humanity and nature

共产主义服务于人的科技推进人与自然双重解放

Marx and Engels pointed out that the harm technology causes to nature is not an inherent attribute of technology itself; on the contrary, it is a primary pathway for resolving the ecological crisis. Marx referred to industrial and agricultural waste as production excreta, emphasizing that technology can achieve its reduction and recycling. On the one hand, Marx pointed out that improvements in production processes triggered by technology can save resources while increasing their utilization rate: “The reduction of waste depends partly on the quality of the machinery used.” [10]10 Karl Marx, *Capital*, vol. 3, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 37, p. 101. [Paraphrased from Marx’s discussion of waste reduction through machinery quality.] On the other hand, Marx emphasized that the development of technology, especially the development of chemical processes, gives new uses to production waste: “It not only discovers new methods for utilizing the waste of its own industry but also utilizes all kinds of waste from other industries.” [11]11 Karl Marx, *Capital*, vol. 3, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 37, p. 101. [Paraphrased from Marx’s discussion of chemical processes utilizing waste.] From this, it can be seen that technology can alleviate environmental pollution and destruction through measures such as improving the utilization rate of natural resources.

马克思恩格斯指出，科技对于自然的损害并非其自身属性，相反，它是消解生态危机的主要路径。马克思将工业与农业废料称为生产排泄物，强调科技可实现对其减少排放与循环利用。一方面，马克思指出，科技引发的生产工艺改进能够在节约资源的同时提高其利用率，“废料的减少，部分地要取决于所使用的机器的质量”。另一方面，马克思强调，科技的发展，尤其是化学工艺的发展，使生产废物有了新的用处，“它不仅发现新的方法来利用本工业的废料，而且还利用其他工业的各种各样的废料”。由此可知，科技可通过提升自然资源利用率等措施缓解自然环境的污染与破坏。

Although in capitalist society, technology also has some applications in mitigating ecological environmental damage, these are only temporary palliatives and cannot address the root cause. Marx and Engels pointed out that in capitalist society, no matter how technology is innovated and developed, no matter how efficient and effective it becomes, it cannot escape the control of capital; that is, technology will always serve the needs of capital accumulation and expansion, and will never truly consider its impact on nature. Therefore, even if capitalists, under pressure from reality and other factors, attempt to patch the rift in the material exchange between humanity and nature, it will only be temporary and false. To fundamentally cure the situation where technology harms nature, one can only hope for the replacement of the capitalist system by the communist system.

尽管在资本主义社会，科技也有在缓解生态环境损害上的一些应用，但却只是治标而不能治本。马克思恩格斯指出，在资本主义社会中，不论科技如何革新发展，如何高功高效，都离不开资本掌控，即科技将始终服务于资本积累和增殖需要，而不会真正考虑对自然的影响。因此，即使资本家迫于现实压力等原因对人与自然之间物质变换的裂缝进行修补，却也只会是暂时与虚假的，如要根治科技损害自然的状况，只能寄希望于共产主义制度对资本主义制度的替代。

First, communist technology serving humanity can exploit natural resources in accordance with laws. The realization of communist society will render production activities based on value meaningless; the purpose of social production will no longer be wealth accumulation but meeting the reasonable needs of human production and life—creating use values in concrete labor, which then become social wealth. The creation of social wealth will no longer originate from a small minority’s control over the means of production but from the possession of the means of production by all members of society. Therefore, humanity will no longer overexploit natural resources for the sake of competing for the means of production. The use of technology in this context will also become an efficient transformation of the latter in accordance with laws, with greater attention to the balance and stability of other elements, thereby becoming an important means of maintaining a harmonious relationship between humanity and nature.

首先，共产主义服务于人的科技，可以合规律地开采自然资源。共产主义社会的实现，将使建立在价值基础上的生产活动失去意义，社会生产的目的不再是财富积累，而是满足人生产生活的合理需要——在具体劳动中创造使用价值继而成为社会财富。社会财富的创造将并非源于小部分人对生产资料的控制，而是出自全体社会成员对生产资料的掌握。因此，人将不再为争夺生产资料而过度开采自然资源，科技在此背景下的使用亦成为对后者进行合规律的高效改造，且更充分关切其他要素的平衡稳定，进而成为维护人与自然和谐关系的重要手段。

Second, communist technology serving humanity embodies the free and comprehensive development of humanity. In communist society, the means of production will be commonly owned by all members of society. Humanity will no longer be forced to labor in submission to capital; “accumulated labor is but a means to widen, to enrich, to promote the existence of the laborer.” [12]12 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party*, in *Marx and Engels Collected Works*, vol. 6 (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1976), p. 499. [Paraphrased from the description of accumulated labor under communism.] The process of objectification of the subject will transform into a process promoting the improvement of all aspects of human qualities. Technology will no longer enslave or control humanity but will promote humanity’s better expression and self-affirmation in natural and social development, truly embodying the free and comprehensive development of humanity.

其次，共产主义服务于人的科技，体现了人的自由全面发展。在共产主义社会，生产资料将为全体社会成员共同占有，人完全不必屈服于资本而被迫进行劳动，“已经积累起来的劳动是扩大、丰富和提高工人的生活的一种手段”，主体客体化的过程将转变为促进人各方面素质提高的过程。科技不会再奴役人、控制人，而是促进人在自然和社会发展中的更好展现与自我确证，将真正体现出人的自由而全面发展。

Science and technology serving humanity in communist society help realize what Marx emphasized: “to carry out this material transformation with the least expenditure of force and under conditions most worthy of and appropriate to their human nature,” thereby promoting the continuous integration of human history and natural history, forming a harmonious relationship between humanity and nature without rupture, and ultimately achieving the dual elevation of both.

共产主义社会服务于人的科技，有助于实现马克思所强调的“靠消耗最小的力量，在最无愧于和最合适于他们的人类本性的条件下来进行这种物质变换”，进而促进人类历史与自然历史不断相互融合，形成人与自然无断裂的和谐，最终实现二者的双重提升。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗