The Qualities That Enabled Marxism’s Early Successful Dissemination in China

At the beginning of the 20th century, the formation of Leninism and the victory of the October Revolution in Russia pushed the confrontation between capitalist and socialist ideologies into a new phase. The banner of Marxism held high by the Bolshevik Party, which had led the Russian revolution to success, further strengthened the confidence of China’s advanced elements in their choice as they sought the truth for national salvation. The prerequisite qualities for the early dissemination of Marxism are mainly manifested in two aspects: first, the advanced nature endowed by the high unity of Marxist theoretical logic and historical development, which was a necessary condition for Marxism’s early successful dissemination in China; second, the development trend by which Marxism could guide the actual needs of the Chinese revolution. The high degree of alignment between the revolutionary nature of the theory and the actual needs of the Chinese revolution, coupled with the scientific attitude of Chinese Communists toward Marxism, constituted the sufficient conditions for Marxism’s early successful dissemination in China.

20世纪初，列宁主义的形成和俄国十月革命的胜利推动资本主义与社会主义意识形态的争锋进入新阶段。领导俄国革命成功的布尔什维克党高举的马克思主义旗帜，更让探索救国真理的中国先进分子增强了选择的信心。马克思主义早期传播的先决品质主要体现在两个方面：其一是马克思主义理论逻辑与历史发展的高度统一所赋予的先进性，这是马克思主义在中国早期成功传播的必要条件；其二是马克思主义能够指导中国革命实际的发展趋势，理论的革命性与中国革命实际需要的高度契合，加之中国共产党人科学对待马克思主义的态度，成为马克思主义在中国早期成功传播的充分条件。

First, Marxism is a proletarian ideology that conforms to the trend of social development. The evolution of social forms from lower to higher stages is an irresistible historical trend. Although China’s industrialization process was slow, this did not change the historical process that would inevitably replace China’s agricultural society, thereby dissolving the foundation on which China’s feudal society relied. Even though China’s industrialization process was forcibly accelerated by external factors, this did not alter the fate of the disintegration of the original social class structure. The new class relations, namely the opposition between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, were an inevitable outcome of the social process. What followed was the weakening or even vacuum of mainstream ideological identification caused by the disintegration of the original ideology amid the transformation of the social structure. The two newly emerging classes, in order to gain legitimacy for their rule, necessarily had to seize the high ground in the ideological field and win the recognition of the masses.

第一，马克思主义是顺应社会发展趋势的无产阶级意识形态。社会形态由低级向高级的演变是不可阻挡的历史趋势，中国工业进程缓慢，但这并未改变必然取代中国农业社会的历史进程，这消解了中国封建社会赖以存在的根基。即使中国的工业化进程是被外源强制加速的，这也没改变原有社会阶级构成瓦解的命运，新的阶级关系即资产阶级和无产阶级的对立是社会进程的必然。随之而来的就是在社会结构转型中，原有意识形态的瓦解所带来的主流意识形态认同的势弱甚至空场。新生的两大阶级为取得统治的合法性必然要在意识形态领域抢占高地，获取民众的认同。

In early 20th-century China, Confucian ideology gradually dissolved along with the feudal foundation and made a dismal exit during the New Culture Movement [1]1 The New Culture Movement (mid-1910s to 1920s) was a Chinese intellectual and cultural movement that criticized traditional Confucian values and promoted modern, Western-inspired ideas such as science and democracy.. The “Three Principles of the People” [2]2 The Three Principles of the People (nationalism, democracy, and livelihood) were the political philosophy of Sun Yat-sen, the founding father of the Republic of China., which represented the Chinese bourgeoisie at the time, although it gained short-term recognition from the masses in the old democratic revolution that overthrew feudal society, ultimately deviated from the people’s will because it safeguarded the class interests of a minority. Moreover, under the promotion of Chiang Kai-shek’s [3]3 Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975) was the leader of the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) who ruled mainland China from 1927 to 1949 and later led the Republic of China revision of Sun Yat-sen’s “Three Principles of the People,” it became trapped in elite consciousness, detached from the general public, blocked the major trend of social development, and completely lost the recognition of the masses. Marxism, representing the proletariat and the laboring masses, conformed to the major trend of social development with its firm people’s stance. Its revolutionary nature broke the millennia-old deadlock of class rule in China, won the recognition of the masses, and, with its quality of conforming to historical development, became the key to its early successful dissemination.

在20世纪初的中国，儒家意识形态随着封建根基逐渐消解，并在新文化运动中惨淡退场；代表当时中国资产阶级的“三民主义”虽在推翻封建社会的旧民主主义革命中获取了民众短期认同，但最终因维护少数人的阶级利益而背离人民意愿，更在蒋介石为首改造孙中山“三民主义”的推动下囿于精英意识，脱离社会大众，阻挡了社会发展的大趋势，彻底失去了民众的认同。代表无产阶级劳苦大众的马克思主义，以坚定的人民立场顺应社会发展的大趋势，所具备的革命性更是打破了中国数千年阶级统治困局，获取了社会民众的认同，以顺应历史发展的特质成就了早期成功传播的关键。

Second, the theoretical quality of keeping pace with the times ensures Marxism’s vigorous vitality and is a key quality for Marxism’s early successful dissemination in China. For any ideology to gain the recognition of the masses, it must have the ability to meet the interest needs of people at different social levels and keep pace with the times. Specifically, regarding the ideology upheld by a political party, it must possess the quality of a high degree of alignment between the party’s principles and propositions and the people’s will—that is, how the party ensures that the guidelines, lines, and policies formulated under the guidance of its ideology can meet the people’s interest needs. Marxism insists on proceeding from reality in everything, linking theory with practice, and seeking truth from facts in dealing with and solving problems. Its theoretical quality of keeping pace with the times represents the fundamental interests of the proletariat. With the deepening of the process of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context [4], China’s advanced elements have always stood on the people’s side, proceeded from the greatest reality of realizing the people’s interests, and made timely adjustments based on changes in practice, thereby fully reflecting the people’s fundamental interests, persistently maintaining Marxism’s vigorous vitality, and winning the recognition of the masses.

第二，与时俱进的理论品质保证马克思主义旺盛的活力，是马克思主义在中国早期成功传播的关键品质。任何一种意识形态要获得民众的认同，必须要有满足不同社会层次民众的利益需求的能力并与时俱进。具体到一个政党所秉持的意识形态上，就是必须具备该政党的原则主张与人民意愿高度契合的品质，也即该政党如何保证以意识形态为指导所制定的方针路线政策能够满足民众的利益需求。马克思主义坚持一切从实际出发，理论联系实际，实事求是地对待问题和解决问题，与时俱进的理论品质代表无产阶级根本利益。随着马克思主义中国化进程的深入，中国先进分子始终站在人民的立场上，一切从人民利益实现的最大实际出发，因实践变化适时地调整，使其充分体现人民的根本利益，持久保持马克思主义旺盛的生命力，赢得人民群众的认同。

Third, the integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the fine traditional Chinese culture [5] is an endogenous quality for Marxism’s early successful dissemination. For a newly emerging ideology to be recognized by the masses, it must possess a cultural quality that resonates with the people’s psychology. Marxism’s advocacy of realizing communism and the lofty goal of achieving the free and comprehensive development of individuals has a high degree of endogenous consistency with the ideals of Great Harmony and the concept of equitable wealth distribution in fine traditional Chinese culture. Compared with the Western bourgeoisie’s emphasis on the rationality of profit-seeking and its eternalization of this concept, Marxism, while acknowledging the pursuit of interests in economic development as a realistic cause for stimulating social vitality, and pointing out the role of capital’s profit-seeking in promoting economic production and the reality of people’s dependence on things, ultimately directs these profoundly critical propositions toward what Marx declared as the “third form” [6]—communism, based on the fundamental principle of “the all-round and free development of each individual.” That is, in communist society, the ideal of being human is realized. Thus, Marxism is highly consistent with the fine traditional Chinese cultural concept of valuing benevolence over profit, striving to achieve the return of humanity itself through humanity and for humanity. Therefore, Marxism vividly interprets the possibility for China to avoid national subjugation and extinction, defeat Western powers, and achieve modernization, while also possessing qualities inherently aligned with fine traditional Chinese culture. It thus has the function of becoming the dominant ideology for China’s revolution-driven social transformation and is therefore easily recognized by the general public.

第三，马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合，是马克思主义早期成功传播内源性品质。一种新生的意识形态能为民众所认同，必须具备民众心理认同的文化品质。马克思主义主张实现共产主义，实现人的自由全面发展的远大目标等内容，与中华优秀传统文化中的大同理想、均富观念有着高度的内源一致性。相较西方资产阶级强调逐利合理性并将之永恒化的理念，马克思主义虽将经济发展中的利益诉求作为激发社会活力的一种现实原因，并指出资本逐利对经济生产的促进作用，以及人对物的依赖关系的现实性，但这些对资本主义带有深刻批判性的主张，最终指向马克思所宣称的走向“第三大形态”即以“每个人的全面而自由发展为基本原则”的共产主义，也即在共产主义社会实现人之为人的理想。由此，马克思主义同中华优秀传统文化的重仁轻利观念高度一致，力求通过人、为了人而完成人本身的复归。所以，马克思主义的主张生动诠释了中国免于亡国灭种并击败西方强权实现现代化的可能，又有与中华优秀传统文化内在契合的特质，具备成为中国以革命促社会转型的主导意识形态功能，故而易被社会大众所认同。

Fourth, the Chinese Communists who uphold Marxism, by manifesting the advanced and revolutionary nature of Marxism to the public, are an important driving force for Marxism’s early successful dissemination in China. “Once theory grips the masses, it also becomes a material force” [7]. Marxism possesses a complete theoretical system and is a theoretical weapon with advanced qualities. Whether such an excellent weapon can play its role depends crucially on the people who wield it. “The Communist Party is the vanguard of the proletariat and, at the same time, the most thorough vanguard of national liberation” [8]. It can successfully transform Marxism into a firm force for seeking benefits for the people. During the period of the New Democratic Revolution [9], Chinese Communists once weakened the social foundation of Marxism’s recognition due to erroneous approaches to Marxism that led to theoretical rigidity and dogmatism. However, the Chinese Communists, with Mao Zedong at the core and imbued with a spirit of self-revolution and exploration, ultimately eliminated erroneous tendencies within the Party, proceeded from the actual conditions of the Chinese revolution, stood on the people’s side, established the ideological line of seeking truth from facts, fully manifested the revolutionary and advanced nature of Marxism, and advanced the development and dissemination of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context.

第四，秉持马克思主义的中国共产党人，将马克思主义的先进性和革命性彰显于众，是马克思主义在中国早期成功传播的重要推动力量。“理论一经掌握群众，也会变成物质力量”，马克思主义拥有完整的理论体系，更是具有先进性的理论武器，如此优良的武器能否发挥作用，关键在于掌握武器的人。“共产党是无产阶级的先锋队，同时又是最彻底的民族解放的先锋队”，能够将马克思主义成功转化为为人民谋利益的坚定力量。在新民主主义革命时期，中国共产党人曾因错误对待马克思主义导致理论僵化、教条化，削弱了马克思主义的社会认同基础，但以毛泽东为核心、极富自我革命和探索精神的中国共产党人最终消除党内错误倾向，从中国革命的实际出发，站在人民的立场上，确立了实事求是的思想路线，将马克思主义的革命性和先进性充分彰显，推进了马克思主义中国化的发展和传播。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗