Basic Experiences and Lessons of the Early Adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese Context

During the early period of exploring the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context (1919–1938), our Party, “because it lacked experience and a profound revolutionary understanding, was not yet adept at integrating the theory of Marx and Lenin with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution.” [1]1 This quotation is from the “Resolution on Certain Historical Questions” adopted at the Seventh Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the CPC in 1945, which summarizes the Party’s early experience in integrating theory and practice. In the course of the Two Integrations, our Party encountered various difficulties and setbacks; hence, the experiences and lessons of the early adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context merit summation.

在马克思主义中国化早期探索时期（1919—1938），我们党“由于没有经验，缺乏深刻的革命认识，还不善于将马克思列宁主义的理论和中国革命的实践相结合”。我们党在“两个结合”过程中历经各种困难和挫折，因而早期马克思主义中国化经验教训值得总结。

Adhere to integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s concrete reality, and apply Marxism from the standpoint of reality. In the early days of our Party’s founding, because it sanctified the directives of the Communist International, dogmatized Soviet experience, copied and mechanically applied international directives and Soviet experience, abandoned the Party’s leadership over the revolutionary armed forces, and slighted the agrarian revolution, this led to Chen Duxiu’s “Right” deviation error and the failure of the Great Revolution; more seriously, it led to the Chinese Red Army being forced to undertake the Long March. [2]2 Chen Duxiu (1879–1942) was a founding leader of the CPC who later adopted a right-deviationist line, and the “Great Revolution” refers to the First United Front period (1924–1927) that ended with the KMT’s violent suppression of the CPC. During the Long March, because it followed the leadership of the Communist International in everything, the Chinese revolution was nearly driven into a dead end. Our Party was adept at self-reflection and summation. On the basis of profoundly summing up the lessons of Wang Ming’s “Left” opportunism, it recognized the necessity of integrating Marxism with China’s concrete reality and leading the Chinese revolution independently and autonomously. [3]3 Wang Ming (1904–1974) was a CPC leader whose “Left” opportunist line dominated the Party from 1931 to 1935, leading to severe losses. In May 1930, in *Oppose Book Worship*, Mao Zedong pointedly put forward valuable ideas such as “no investigation, no right to speak” and “the victory of the Chinese revolution depends on Chinese comrades understanding Chinese conditions.” [4]4 *Oppose Book Worship* (1930) is a famous essay by Mao Zedong arguing against dogmatic reliance on texts and foreign models. The correct decisions made at the Tongdao Conference and the Liping Conference during the Red Army’s Long March were precisely the result of the resolute struggle waged by the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their main representative, against the erroneous leadership of the Communist International. [5]5 The Tongdao Conference (December 1934) and the Liping Conference (December 1934) were emergency meetings during the Long March where Mao Zedong successfully argued for changing the Red Army’s route to avoid a KMT ambush. Consequently, the Central Red Army changed its forward route during the Long March and turned danger into safety. Mao Zedong later recalled: “Especially in 1934, we suffered very heavy losses. After that, we learned to think for ourselves.” [6]6 This recollection is from Mao’s later conversations, reflecting on the near-disaster of the Long March’s early phase. In the course of the revolution, our Party always operated with a strong problem-consciousness, using major problems as the orientation to propel the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context.

坚持马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结，从实际出发运用马克思主义。我们党成立初期，由于把共产国际指示神圣化，把苏联经验教条化，照抄照搬国际指示和苏联经验，放弃党对革命武装的领导权，轻视土地革命，从而导致陈独秀“右”倾错误以及大革命失败，更为严重的是导致中国红军被迫进行长征。长征途中，由于处处听命于共产国际的领导，中国革命几乎陷入绝境。我们党善于自我反思和总结，在深刻总结王明“左”倾机会主义教训的基础上，认识到必须把马克思主义与中国具体实际相结合，独立自主地领导中国革命。毛泽东1930年5月在《反对本本主义》中具有针对性地提出“没有调查，没有发言权”，“中国革命斗争的胜利要靠中国同志了解中国情况”等宝贵思想。红军长征路上的通道会议、黎平会议的正确决策，正是以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人与共产国际的错误领导做坚决斗争的结果。因此，中央红军改变了长征前进路线，转危为安。毛泽东后来回忆说：“特别是一九三四年，使我们遭受了很大的损失。从那之后，我们就懂得要自己想问题。”在革命过程中，我们党总是带着强烈的问题意识，以重大问题为导向推动马克思主义中国化。

Adhere to integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture, and find the points of convergence that connect with traditional culture. Only by integrating with China’s fine traditional culture and expressing itself in the linguistic forms and modes of thinking that the Chinese people are pleased to see and hear can Marxism gain the cultural and psychological recognition of the Chinese people, and only then can it take root, blossom, and bear fruit in China. In 1917, Mao Zedong already said: “Western thought … should be transformed simultaneously with Eastern thought.” [7]7 This early statement by Mao Zedong appears in his 1917 letter to Li Jinxi, showing his early concern with the relationship between Chinese and Western thought. In articles such as “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War,” Mao Zedong pointed out that “from Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, we should sum up and inherit this precious legacy” and “make Marxism concrete in China, so that in every one of its manifestations it possesses the necessary Chinese characteristics.” [8]8 “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War” is a report delivered by Mao Zedong at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the CPC in October 1938, a key text for the Sinification of Marxism. Mao Zedong insisted on proceeding from the practical needs of reality and taking practice as the criterion, using the Marxist stand, viewpoint, and method to criticize, inherit, and transform China’s traditional culture, thereby forming Mao Zedong Thought with a typical Chinese style and Chinese manner. The integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture is a historical necessity for advancing the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context.

坚持马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合，找到与传统文化相贯通的契合点。马克思主义只有与中华优秀传统文化相结合，以中国人民喜闻乐见的语言形式和思维习惯来表达，才能得到中国人民的文化心理认同，才能在中国生根、开花和结果。1917年，毛泽东就说过：“西方思想……应与东方思想同时改造。”毛泽东在《中国共产党在民族战争中的地位》等文章中则指出，“从孔夫子到孙中山，我们应当总结、继承这一份珍贵的遗产”，“使马克思主义在中国具体化，使之在其每一表现中带着必须有的中国的特性”。毛泽东坚持从现实的实践需要出发并以实践为标准，运用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法，对中国传统文化进行批判、继承和改造，从而形成具有典型中国风格和中国气派的毛泽东思想。马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合，是推进马克思主义中国化的历史必然。

Adhere to the principal position of the people and give play to the people’s spirit of innovation and creation. The Communist Party of China is the core of the subject of the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context, and it has a clear understanding and grasp of the causes, process, and results of this adaptation. After the failure of the Great Revolution, the Chinese Communists summed up the experience of leading the Red Army and the struggle in the base areas, and blazed a new revolutionary path of encircling the cities from the countryside and seizing state power by armed force. In the course of the Chinese revolution, the CPC always adhered to the principal position of the people, always adhered to the viewpoint and standpoint of the masses, and always insisted on doing everything for the people and relying on the people. *Youth and the Countryside*, *Eliminate the Three Evils*, and *The Great Union of the Popular Masses* were works by Li Dazhao, Chen Duxiu, and Mao Zedong respectively, all aimed at awakening the people and thereby relying on the masses to propel revolutionary practice. [9]9 Li Dazhao (1889–1927) was a co-founder of the CPC; Chen Duxiu (1879–1942) was the Party’s first General Secretary; these works were early attempts to mobilize the peasantry and masses. Maintaining close ties with the masses, relying on the people and acting for the people, and drawing on the wisdom and strength of the masses are effective ways to promote the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context. The key to deepening and developing the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context lies in always adhering to the principal position of the people.

坚持人民主体地位，发挥人民的创新创造精神。中国共产党是马克思主义中国化主体的核心，对马克思主义中国化的原因、过程和结果有着清醒的认识和把握。大革命失败后，中国共产党人总结领导红军和根据地斗争的经验，走出了一条农村包围城市、武装夺取政权的革命新道路。中国革命过程中，中国共产党始终坚持人民主体地位，始终坚持人民群众的观点和立场，坚持一切为了人民、一切依靠人民。《青年与农村》《除三害》《民众的大联合》分别是李大钊、陈独秀和毛泽东的作品，它们都是为了启发人民觉醒，从而依靠人民群众推动革命实践。密切联系群众，依靠人民又为了人民，汲取群众的智慧和力量，是促进马克思主义中国化的有效方式。马克思主义中国化的深化发展，关键在于始终坚持人民主体地位。

Adhere to actively leading social thought currents and continuously expand influence through dissemination. In the early period of the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context, there were three major debates. [10]10 The three major debates refer to the “Problems and Isms” debate (1919), the debate on socialism versus Guild Socialism (1920–1921), and the debate with anarchists (1920–1921), all of which helped define the ideological direction of the early CPC. The first was in response to Hu Shi’s proposition of “study more problems, talk less about isms.” Li Dazhao profoundly pointed out that problems and isms are inseparable. Because if there is first an ism toward which everyone tends, we can manage to make the problems that need solving become common problems for the majority of society and turn them into a common movement of the majority of society; only then is there hope of solving the problems. Therefore, Li Dazhao said: “Thus, in our social movement, on the one hand we must certainly study concrete problems, and on the other hand we must also propagate ideal isms. These two complement each other; they are not contradictory.” [11]11 This quotation is from Li Dazhao’s 1919 article “A Re-discussion of Problems and Isms,” his response to Hu Shi’s challenge. The second debate was the controversy between Marxism and Guild Socialism; the focus and essence of the debate were the paths of socialism and capitalism and the means of realizing them. Anarchism advocated abolishing the state, opposing dictatorship, and demanding absolute freedom, among other things. The debates between Marxism and various non-Marxist currents forcefully criticized liberal thought, Guild Socialist thought, and anarchism, drew a clear line between Marxism and non-Marxism, enabled more Chinese to recognize that the guiding ideology for the Chinese revolution should be Marxism, promoted the founding of the CPC and the unfolding of the Chinese revolution, and cleared away ideological fog for the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context.

坚持积极主动引领社会思潮，在传播中不断扩大影响力。马克思主义中国化早期，经历了三次大论战。一是针对胡适提出的“多研究些问题、少谈些主义”的观点，李大钊深刻地指出，问题与主义不可分离。因为如果先有一个共同趋向的主义，我们就可以设法让要解决的问题成为社会上多数人共同的问题，并成为社会上多数人共同的运动，这样才有希望解决问题。因此，李大钊说：“所以我们的社会运动，一方面固然要研究实际的问题，一方面也要宣传理想的主义。这是交相为用的，这是并行不悖的。”第二次论战是马克思主义与基尔特社会主义的争论，社会主义与资本主义的道路及其实现途径是他们争论的焦点和实质。无政府主义主张废除国家、反对专政、主张绝对自由等。马克思主义与各种非马克思主义之间的论战，有力地批判了自由主义思想、基尔特社会主义思想以及无政府主义，划清了马克思主义与非马克思主义之间的界线，让更多的中国人认识到，指导中国革命的思想应当是马克思主义，促进了中国共产党的成立和中国革命的开展，为马克思主义中国化扫除了思想上的迷雾。

Practice has no end, and neither does the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context. Although the early adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context was full of twists and difficulties, it always advanced continuously. This was the result of the early Chinese Communists insisting on independently and autonomously solving the problems of the Chinese revolution and insisting on integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s concrete reality; it was the result of insisting on dialectically treating China’s traditional culture and integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture; it was the result of insisting on the Party’s strong leadership, always adhering to the principal position of the people, and giving play to the people’s historical initiative; it was the result of continuously struggling against erroneous thought currents on the path forward and actively leading social thought currents. This is also the greatest inspiration for the adaptation of Marxism to the Chinese context in the New Era.

实践没有止境，马克思主义中国化亦没有止境。早期马克思主义中国化虽然历经坎坷和艰难，但始终不断前进，这是早期中国共产党人坚持独立自主解决中国革命问题，坚持把马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合的结果；是坚持辩证对待中国传统文化，把马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合的结果；是坚持党的坚强领导，始终坚持人民主体地位、发挥人民历史主动精神的结果；是在前进道路上不断与错误思潮做斗争，积极引领社会思潮的结果。这也是给新时代马克思主义中国化最大的启示。

Web editor: Paul

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