The Historical Materialist Foundation of Marx’s “True Community” Thought

Marx’s thought of the “true community” did not reach a scientific theoretical height from the moment of its emergence; rather, it underwent a process of transformation from humanism to historical materialism. Accurately grasping and systematically presenting the historical materialist foundation of Marx’s “true community” thought has important implications for advancing our theoretical research and practical exploration concerning community.

马克思的“真正的共同体”思想并不是一经出场就达到了科学的理论高度，而是经历了一个从人本主义到唯物史观的转变过程。准确把握和系统呈现马克思“真正的共同体”思想的唯物史观基础，对于我们推进有关共同体的理论研究和实践探索具有重要启示意义。

From Humanism to Historical Materialism

从人本主义到唯物史观

In the article “Critical Marginal Notes on the Article ‘The King of Prussia and Social Reform. By a Prussian,’” written in July 1844, Marx first proposed the concept of the “true community.” He said: “The community from which the worker is separated, whether in its reality or in its scale, is quite different from the political community. … Man’s essence is man’s true community.” [1]1 Karl Marx, “Critical Marginal Notes on the Article ‘The King of Prussia and Social Reform. By a Prussian,’” *MECW*, vol. 3, p. 204. Here, Marx’s assertion that “man’s essence is man’s true community” was used to refute the view of “a Prussian” (Ruge) that community is merely a political community, which is undoubtedly reasonable to a certain extent. However, it must also be noted that this understanding of the “true community” by Marx also contains obvious defects. Logically, defining the “true community” on the basis of man’s essence first requires clarifying what man’s essence is, yet Marx did not explain this in this article. Referring to Marx’s related discussions from the same period (such as “the root of man is man himself”), it can be found that his understanding of man’s essence at this time bore a distinct humanist color—that is, it was analyzed solely in terms of man’s species attributes or species-essence, detached from man’s concrete social relations. This humanist analysis has precise meaning only when discussing the relationship between man and God or between man and animal; once it encounters concrete social relations, its abstract side is exposed. In fact, Marx’s humanist understanding of man’s essence at this time was influenced by Feuerbach, as Engels pointed out in his later years: during this period, “we all became Feuerbachians for a time.” [2]2 Friedrich Engels, *Ludwig Feuerbach and the End of Classical German Philosophy*, *MECW*, vol. 26, p. 364. Since Marx’s understanding of man’s essence at this time was humanist, the proposition “man’s essence is man’s true community” is also a humanist proposition.

在1844年7月撰写的《评一个普鲁士人的〈普鲁士国王和社会改革〉一文》中，马克思首次提出了“真正的共同体”概念。他说：“工人脱离的那个共同体，无论就其现实性而言，还是就其规模而言，完全不同于政治共同体。……人的本质是人的真正的共同体。”在这里，马克思以“人的本质是人的真正的共同体”这一论断来反驳“一个普鲁士人”（卢格）将共同体仅仅看作政治共同体的观点，无疑是有一定道理的。但是也要看到，马克思对“真正的共同体”的这一理解也存在着明显缺陷。从逻辑上看，基于人的本质来界定“真正的共同体”，首先要阐明何谓人的本质，而马克思在这篇文章中并未对此作出说明。参照马克思同一时期相关论述（如“人的根本就是人本身”等）可以发现，他此时对人的本质的理解带有鲜明的人本主义色彩，即脱离人的具体社会关系而仅仅在人的物种属性或类本质层面展开分析。这种人本主义分析只有在讨论人与神、人与动物的关系问题时才有确切意义，一旦遭遇具体社会关系，其抽象性一面就会暴露出来。事实上，马克思此时之所以对人的本质作出人本主义理解，是因为受到了费尔巴哈的影响，正如恩格斯晚年所指出的那样，在这一时期，“我们一时都成为费尔巴哈派了”。既然马克思此时对人的本质的理解是人本主义式的，那么“人的本质是人的真正的共同体”这一命题也就是一个人本主义命题。

When Marx again discussed the “true community” in *The German Ideology*, his thought had already shifted from humanism to historical materialism. In analyzing the relationship between the division of labor and the development of community in this text, he pointed out: “The illusory community in which individuals have united up to now always took on an independent existence in relation to them, and since it was the union of one class against another, it was not only a completely illusory community for the dominated class, but also a new fetter. In a true community, individuals gain their freedom in and through their association.” [3]3 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *The German Ideology*, *MECW*, vol. 5, p. 78. Clearly, Marx’s use of the concept of “true community” here is no longer to distinguish it from the political community, but to distinguish it from the illusory community and the false community; the political community is merely one form of the illusory community and the false community. Marx believed that the communities of the past were illusory and false because they were based on the division of labor and private property, containing within them individual antagonism, class struggle, and the split of interests. In contrast, the “true community” is based on the high development of productive forces, the universalization of intercourse, and the disappearance of the division of labor and private property; thus, the illusory and false nature of past communities is sublated here.

当马克思在《德意志意识形态》中再次论及“真正的共同体”时，他的思想已经从人本主义转向了唯物史观。他在该文本中阐释分工与共同体发展的关系问题时指出：“从前各个人联合而成的虚假的共同体，总是相对于各个人而独立的；由于这种共同体是一个阶级反对另一个阶级的联合，因此对于被统治的阶级来说，它不仅是完全虚幻的共同体，而且是新的桎梏。在真正的共同体的条件下，各个人在自己的联合中并通过这种联合获得自己的自由。”很显然，马克思在这里使用“真正的共同体”概念不再是为了区别于政治共同体，而是为了区别于虚假共同体、虚幻共同体，政治共同体不过是虚假共同体、虚幻共同体的一种。马克思认为，从前的共同体之所以具有虚假性、虚幻性，是因为它们建立在分工和私有制基础之上，在其中存在着个体对抗、阶级斗争、利益分裂；与之相反，“真正的共同体”建立在生产力高度发展、交往普遍化、分工和私有制消亡的基础之上，因而从前共同体的虚假性、虚幻性在这里得到了扬弃。

In the *Grundrisse* (1857–1858), Marx again used the concept of the “true community” when analyzing the problem of the individual’s gradual isolation in the historical process. He said: “In bourgeois society, the worker has completely lost the objective conditions; he exists only subjectively; and what confronts him has now become the true community, which the worker tries to devour, but which devours him.” [4]4 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*, *MECW*, vol. 28, p. 498. Here, Marx ironically depicts the inverted nature of capitalist society with the “true community.” He believed that in capitalist society, universal exchange dissolves the necessity of the “group,” and the individual consequently moves toward isolation; what sustains the existence of the community is no longer the individual, but money and capital: “Money is at the same time the real community.” [5]5 Ibid., p. 499. This is an inverted community, which must be turned right side up to form the “true community.” This method of political-economic analysis shows that Marx’s thought of the “true community” at this time had entered the stage of the concrete application of historical materialism.

在《1857—1858年经济学手稿》中，马克思在分析个人在历史过程中逐渐孤立化的问题时再次使用了“真正的共同体”概念。他说：“在资产阶级社会里，工人完全丧失了客体条件，他只是在主体上存在着；而和他对立的东西，现在却变成真正的共同体，工人力图吞食它，但它却吞食着工人。”在这里，马克思以“真正的共同体”反讽式地描绘了资本主义社会的颠倒属性。他认为，在资本主义社会，普遍交换消解了“群”的必要性，个体随之走向孤立，维系共同体存在的不再是个体，而是货币和资本，“货币同时直接是现实的共同体”。这是一种颠倒的共同体，必须将其颠倒过来才能形成“真正的共同体”。这种政治经济学分析方法表明，马克思此时的“真正的共同体”思想已经进入唯物史观具体化运用阶段。

Marx’s Elaboration of the “True Community” on the Basis of Historical Materialism

马克思在唯物史观基础上对“真正的共同体”的阐释

Since Marx’s thought of the “true community” underwent the above transformation process, when grasping this thought, we should take the content he elaborated on the basis of historical materialism as the main object. Our understanding and grasp can be unfolded from the following aspects.

既然马克思“真正的共同体”思想有上述转变过程，那么我们在把握该思想时，应该以他在唯物史观基础上阐发的内容为主要对象。我们的理解把握可以从如下方面展开。

First, what is the “true community.” The “true community” is not the abstract essence of man, nor an abstract species-community; it transcends all past illusory and false communities and is the community of the future communist society. In Marx’s view, the “true community” is equivalent to the “association of free individuals” and the “realm of freedom.”

其一，何谓“真正的共同体”。“真正的共同体”不是抽象的人的本质，不是抽象的类共同体，它超越了过去一切虚假共同体、虚幻共同体，是未来共产主义社会的共同体。在马克思那里，“真正的共同体”等同于“自由人联合体”“自由王国”。

Second, the historical coordinates of the “true community.” In the humanist stage, Marx believed that communism is “the true appropriation of man’s essence through man and for man,” and the historical coordinates of the “true community” lay in the stage of the restoration of man’s species-essence. After establishing historical materialism, Marx emphasized that the “true community” is the association of free individuals that “replaces the old bourgeois society with its classes and class antagonisms,” and its historical coordinates lie on the other side of the capitalist mode of production.

其二，“真正的共同体”的历史坐标。在人本主义阶段，马克思认为共产主义是“通过人并且为了人而对人的本质的真正占有”，“真正的共同体”的历史坐标在人的类本质的复归阶段。创立唯物史观后，马克思强调“真正的共同体”是“代替那存在着阶级和阶级对立的资产阶级旧社会的”自由人联合体，其历史坐标在资本主义生产方式的彼岸。

Third, the basic characteristics of the “true community.” The “true community” sublates the illusory and false nature of past communities; authenticity and truthfulness are its basic characteristics. This characteristic is manifested in the fact that there is no longer individual antagonism, class opposition, or the split between individual interest and common interest within the community; individuals are no longer dominated by things or ruled by abstractions, and they achieve free and comprehensive development.

其三，“真正的共同体”的基本特征。“真正的共同体”扬弃了以往共同体的虚假性、虚幻性，真实性、真正性是其基本特征。这种特征表现为共同体中不再有个体对抗、阶级对立、个人利益和公共利益的分裂，个体不再受物的支配和抽象的统治，实现了自由全面发展。

Fourth, the real subject of the “true community.” After establishing historical materialism, Marx believed that the subject of the community is not the abstract individual, but the real individual. The “true community” is also composed of real individuals, who have shed the state of alienation and attained “free individuality.”

其四，“真正的共同体”的现实主体。创立唯物史观后，马克思认为共同体的主体不是抽象的个体，而是现实的个人。“真正的共同体”也由现实的个人构成，这些现实的个人摆脱了异化状态，获得了“自由个性”。

Fifth, the immanent principle of the “true community.” Marx believed that in past communities, relations of personal dependence and relations of material dependence successively constituted the immanent principle of the community. In the “true community,” the labor product loses its character of exchange value, the relationship between subjects sheds its dependence on things, and the free association relationship established on this basis constitutes its immanent principle.

其五，“真正的共同体”的内在原则。马克思认为，在以往的共同体中，人的依赖关系、物的依赖关系先后构成共同体的内在原则。在“真正的共同体”中，劳动产品失去了交换价值属性，主体间的关系摆脱了对物的依赖，建立在此基础之上的自由联合关系构成其内在原则。

Sixth, the basis of ownership of the “true community.” Marx believed that in the history of human development, “because private property has freed itself from the community, the state has attained an independent existence alongside and outside civil society,” [6]6 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *The German Ideology*, *MECW*, vol. 5, p. 89. and the illusory community was thus born. The “true community” is both a positive sublation of all past communities and a positive sublation of past private property; the individual ownership reconstructed on the basis of the common possession of the means of production constitutes its basis of ownership.

其六，“真正的共同体”的所有制基础。马克思认为，在人类发展史上，“由于私有制摆脱了共同体，国家获得了和市民社会并列并且在市民社会之外的独立存在”，虚幻共同体由此而生。“真正的共同体”既是对以往各种共同体的积极扬弃，也是对以往私有制的积极扬弃，在生产资料共同占有基础上重建的个人所有制，构成其所有制基础。

Seventh, the dialectical structure of the “true community.” The relationship between the individual and the community constitutes the basic structure of all communities. In naturally formed communities, the individual naturally belongs to the community: “the community is the substance, and the individual is merely the accident of the substance”; [7]7 Karl Marx, *Grundrisse*, *MECW*, vol. 28, p. 400. in modern capitalist society, the individual is opposed to the community, and the individual can only become a member of the community by being incorporated into the “system of universal utility” woven by capital; in the “true community,” the relationship between the individual and the community is dialectical: on the one hand, “only in the community does individual freedom become possible”; [8]8 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *The German Ideology*, *MECW*, vol. 5, p. 78. on the other hand, “the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.” [9]9 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, *Manifesto of the Communist Party*, *MECW*, vol. 6, p. 506.

其七，“真正的共同体”的辩证结构。个体与共同体的关系构成一切共同体的基本结构。在自然形成的共同体中，个体天然地从属于共同体，“共同体是实体，而个人则只不过是实体的偶然因素”；在现代资本主义社会，个体与共同体相对立，个体只有被纳入资本编织的“普遍有用性体系”才能成为共同体一员；在“真正的共同体”中，个体与共同体的关系是辩证的：一方面，“只有在共同体中才可能有个人自由”；另一方面，“每个人的自由发展是一切人的自由发展的条件”。

Eighth, the mode of realization of the “genuine community.” In the humanist stage, Marx regarded the sublation of alienated labor and the restoration of species-essence as the mode of realization of the “genuine community.” After founding historical materialism, Marx recognized that alienation is not the root of private property, but rather private property is the root of alienation. On this basis, he discussed the mode of realization of the “genuine community” from the perspectives of the high development of productive forces, the universalization of intercourse, the extinction of private property and the division of labor, and the proletarian revolution.

其八，“真正的共同体”的实现方式。在人本主义阶段，马克思将异化劳动的扬弃和类本质的复归视作“真正的共同体”的实现方式。创立唯物史观后，马克思认识到异化不是私有制的根源，私有制才是异化的根源。基于此，他从生产力高度发展、交往普遍化、私有制和分工消亡、无产阶级革命等方面论述了“真正的共同体”的实现方式。

The Contemporary Significance of Marx’s “Genuine Community” Thought

马克思“真正的共同体”思想的当代意义

Accurately grasping and systematically presenting the historical materialist foundation of Marx’s “genuine community” thought has important enlightening significance for the development of current theory and practice.

准确把握和系统呈现马克思“真正的共同体”思想的唯物史观基础，对于当前理论和实践的开展具有重要启示意义。

First, it helps to correctly apply Marx’s “genuine community” thought. Marx’s “genuine community” thought did not reach a scientific theoretical height as soon as it appeared; when we cite this thought, we must always base ourselves on the viewpoints he expounded on the foundation of historical materialism. If we cannot accurately grasp the historical materialist foundation of this thought and, in research, take Marx’s “genuine community” thought from his humanist stage as the main object of citation, then not only will our academic efforts fail to achieve the expected results, but it will also greatly degrade the explanatory power and insight of Marxism with respect to contemporary theory and reality.

一是有助于正确运用马克思的“真正的共同体”思想。马克思“真正的共同体”思想不是一经出场就达到了科学的理论高度，我们在援引该思想时，要始终以他在唯物史观基础上阐发的观点为依据。如果我们不能准确把握这一思想的唯物史观基础，在研究中将马克思人本主义阶段的“真正的共同体”思想作为主要引证对象，那么不仅我们的学术努力难以取得预期效果，还会大大降格马克思主义之于当代理论和现实的解释力、洞察力。

Second, it helps to accurately distinguish the relationship between the “genuine community” and “a community with a shared future for mankind.” On the one hand, the “genuine community” is different from “a community with a shared future for mankind.” The essential attributes, historical coordinates, basic characteristics, real subjects, internal principles, ownership foundation, dialectical structure, mode of realization, etc., of the former are as described above; the latter is a global development community of the present era, with historical coordinates on this side of the capitalist mode of production, basic characteristics of joint construction and shared benefit, real subjects of nation-states in the era of globalization, internal principles of the common interests and common values of all humanity, an ownership foundation of a global ownership structure where capitalist private ownership and socialist public ownership coexist, a dialectical structure where the relationship between the individual and the community is still built on the foundation of dependence on things, and a mode of realization of rational global division of labor and distribution on the basis of the rapid development of productive forces. On the other hand, there is a close connection between the “genuine community” and “a community with a shared future for mankind.” The former is the long-term goal of the latter, and the latter gradually solidifies the foundation for the realization of the former; we cannot simply sever the relationship between the two.

二是有助于准确辨析“真正的共同体”与“人类命运共同体”的关系。一方面，“真正的共同体”不同于“人类命运共同体”。前者的本质属性、历史坐标、基本特征、现实主体、内在原则、所有制基础、辩证结构、实现方式等如前文所述；后者是当今时代的全球发展共同体，历史坐标在资本主义生产方式的此岸，基本特征是共建共享，现实主体是全球化时代的民族国家，内在原则是全人类共同利益和共同价值，所有制基础是资本主义私有制和社会主义公有制并存的全球所有制结构，辩证结构即个体与共同体的关系依然建立在物的依赖关系基础之上，实现方式是生产力快速发展基础之上的全球合理分工分配。另一方面，“真正的共同体”与“人类命运共同体”之间存在密切关联。前者是后者的长远目标，后者为前者的实现逐步夯实基础，我们不能简单割裂二者之间的关系。

Third, it helps to rationally advance contemporary community construction. At present, whether it is building a social governance community or constructing a community with a shared future for mankind, it is necessary to follow the basic principles inherent in Marx’s “genuine community” thought: First, the principle of realism. We cannot understand community at the level of abstract human essence; promoting contemporary community construction cannot merely appeal to the power of reason and morality, but must rely on real material practice. Second, the principle of dialectics. In contemporary community construction, it is necessary to dialectically treat the relationship between the individual and the community, personal interests and public interests, and personal values and common values, maintaining a necessary balance between subjectivity and commonality, and avoiding extreme individuality and abstract totality. Third, the principle of historicity. Entering the “genuine community” is a historical undertaking that requires human society to gradually create conditions for it. We cannot non-historically view the relationship between the “false community” and the “genuine community”; in contemporary community construction, we cannot blindly benchmark against the “genuine community” divorced from historical conditions, but must maintain a reasonable tension between “doing one’s utmost” and “acting within one’s capacity.” Fourth, the principle of initiative. The “genuine community” is the inevitable prospect of the development of human society. Therefore, while focusing on the present and pragmatically building contemporary social communities, we must also be full of confidence in their long-term goals, and persistently advance contemporary communities toward the direction of the “genuine community” through active practice.

三是有助于合理推进当代共同体建设。当前，不论是打造社会治理共同体，还是构建人类命运共同体，都需要遵循马克思“真正的共同体”思想中蕴含的基本原则：一是现实性原则。我们不能在抽象的人的本质层面理解共同体，推动当代共同体建设不能仅仅诉诸理性和道德的力量，而是要依托现实的物质实践。二是辩证性原则。在当代共同体建设中，要辩证对待个体与共同体、个人利益与公共利益、个人价值与共同价值的关系，在主体性与公共性之间保持必要的平衡，避免走向极端个体性和抽象整体性。三是历史性原则。迈入“真正的共同体”是一项历史性事业，需要人类社会逐步为之创造条件。我们不能非历史地看待“虚假共同体”与“真正的共同体”的关系，在当代共同体建设中不能脱离历史条件盲目对标“真正的共同体”，而是要在“尽力而为”与“量力而行”之间保持合理张力。四是能动性原则。“真正的共同体”是人类社会发展的必然前景。因此，我们在着眼当下、务实建设当代社会共同体的同时，也要对其长远目标满怀信心，以能动性地实践持之以恒地推进当代共同体向着“真正的共同体”方向前进。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗