The Status of the Theory of Human Development in Marxism

The complete emancipation and free all-round development of human beings constitute the core value of Marxist theory. As the theoretical expression of the value orientation of human development, the theory of human development is an important component of Marxist theory. It is grounded in Marxism, emerging and evolving within Marxism. The value orientation of human development, embedded in the theory of human development, serves as the core value of Marxist theory and runs through Marxist philosophy, political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism. Clarifying the status of the theory of human development in Marxism helps to highlight the value implications and practical functions of Marxist theory.

人的彻底解放和自由全面发展是马克思主义理论的核心价值。作为人的发展价值取向理论表达的人的发展理论，是马克思主义理论的重要内容，它以马克思主义为基础，在马克思主义中生成和发展。蕴含于人的发展理论中的人的发展价值取向，作为马克思主义理论的核心价值，贯穿于马克思主义哲学、政治经济学和科学社会主义理论中。明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，有助于彰显马克思主义理论的价值意蕴和实践功能。

I. The Theory of Human Development Is Grounded in Marxism

一、人的发展理论以马克思主义为基础

The intrinsic connection between the theory of human development and Marxism lies first in its foundation in Marxism. First, the theory of human development is grounded in Marxist philosophy. As an important part of Marxist philosophy, the theory of human development is based on the basic principles of Marxist philosophy, especially its view of practice and historical materialism. It was on the basis of the view of practice and historical materialism that Marx and Engels scientifically elucidated the social nature of human beings, defined the subject of human development, established the connotation and goals of human development, revealed the real conditions for human development, pointed out the path for realizing human development, and created and developed the theory of human development.

人的发展理论与马克思主义的内在关联首先在于它以马克思主义为基础。第一，人的发展理论以马克思主义哲学为基础。人的发展理论作为马克思主义哲学的重要内容，以马克思主义哲学基本原理特别是其实践观和唯物史观为基础，马克思、恩格斯正是在实践观和唯物史观的基础上，科学地阐明了人的社会性，界定了人的发展主体，确立了人的发展内涵及其目标，揭示了人的发展的现实条件，指明了人的发展的实现路径，创立和发展了人的发展理论。

The view of practice provides the philosophical premise for understanding the subject and meaning of human development. In the process of creating a new worldview, Marx and Engels put forward a scientific view of practice, holding that the fundamental mission of philosophy is to change the world, that practice is the most fundamental mode of human existence, that all social life is essentially practical, that all problems in the field of social history can be reasonably explained in practice, and that therefore human beings and society should be understood from the perspective of practice.

实践观为理解人的发展主体和含义提供了哲学前提。马克思、恩格斯在创立新世界观的过程中提出了科学的实践观，认为哲学的根本使命是改变世界，实践是人最根本的生存方式，全部社会生活在本质上是实践的，社会历史领域中的所有问题都能够在实践中得到合理的说明，因而应当从实践出发理解人和社会。

Marx and Engels scientifically defined the subject of human development from the perspective of practice. They overcame the defect of abstract theories of human nature that depart from practice in understanding human beings, and established the scientific concept of "real, active human beings." [1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*. Marx and Engels believed that labor elevates humans from animals and creates the human mode of existence. Only by changing nature through practice can humans appropriate and utilize natural objects in useful forms, obtain the means of subsistence, and maintain their own existence as humans. Therefore, the "practical activity" engaged in by humans is first of all productive practice. Productive practice, with the production and reproduction of material means of subsistence as its main content, is the most fundamental mode of human existence and the species-characteristic that distinguishes humans from other things. They held that in productive practice, humans inevitably enter into definite social relations, i.e., production "immediately appears as a twofold relation: on the one hand as a natural relation, on the other as a social relation," [1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*. (p. 160) [2]2 This citation refers to Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, where they discuss the twofold character of production. The page number follows the Chinese edition cited by the author. so real, active human beings always exist within definite social conditions and social relations, possess sociality, and are subject to the constraints of social relations. For this reason, they opposed understanding humans as abstract, isolated individuals, advocated explaining humans from the perspective of material production activities, material production relations, and social life, and explicitly stated that "our starting point is the active human being," [2]2 This citation refers to Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, where they discuss the twofold character of production. The page number follows the Chinese edition cited by the author. (p. 152) i.e., "real human beings," [2]2 This citation refers to Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*, where they discuss the twofold character of production. The page number follows the Chinese edition cited by the author. (p. 247) thereby establishing a scientific concept of humans and revealing the social nature of humans. It is precisely on the basis of this understanding of the species-characteristic of human practice and the social nature of humans that they pointed out that the essence of humans is the sum of social relations, the result of the interaction of various social relations. Since social relations change with the development of practice, the essence of humans also constantly emerges and changes accordingly. Therefore, the "human" in human development is a concrete, historical human; in class society, humans possess class character.

马克思、恩格斯从实践出发科学地界定了人的发展主体。他们克服了抽象人性论离开实践理解人的缺陷，确立了“从事实际活动的、现实的人”的科学概念。马克思、恩格斯认为，劳动将人从动物中提升出来，造就了人的生存方式，人只有通过实践改变自然，才能在有用的形式上占有和利用自然物，获取生存资料，维持自身作为人的生存，因而人所从事的“实际活动”首先是生产实践，以物质资料生产和再生产为主要内容的生产实践是人最根本的生存方式，是人不同于他物的类特性。他们认为，人们在生产实践中必然会结成一定的社会关系，即生产“立即表现为双重关系：一方面是自然关系，另一方面是社会关系”，[1](P160)因此，从事实际活动的现实的人总是生存于一定的社会条件和社会关系之中，具有社会性，要受到社会关系的制约。为此，他们反对将人理解为抽象的、孤立的个体，主张从物质生产活动、物质生产关系和社会生活出发说明人，明确指出“我们的出发点是从事实际活动的人”，[2](P152)即“现实的人”，[2](P247)确立了关于人的科学概念，揭示了人的社会性。正是基于对人的实践的类特性和人的社会性的理解，他们指出了人的本质是社会关系总和，是各种社会关系相互作用的结果。由于社会关系会随着实践的发展不断变化，人的本质也会随之而不断生成和改变，因而人的发展的“人”是具体的、历史的人，在阶级社会中，人具有阶级性。

Marx and Engels scientifically revealed the meaning of human development from the perspective of practice. They believed that practice is the fundamental mode of human existence, the real activity through which humans actively change their objects. It makes human existence and needs transcend reality, never satisfied with the status quo but always tending toward the better, and never ceasing to change the natural and social environment. First, practical ability (endowment) and practical activity are the basis for humans to possess subjectivity, initiative, and creativity, fundamentally distinguishing humans from other animals. Second, in the process of changing objects, humans also change themselves, which determines that humans are fundamentally different from other things: humans are not a predetermined, unchanging existence but are constantly changing and growing in the process of practice. Therefore, human development must also be realized in the process of their practice of changing nature and society. Third, practice is the activity in which humans objectify their essential powers, their knowledge, emotions, and will, in the process of changing the object. In this process, humans satisfy their need for self-realization. Therefore, humans are objective beings, always expecting self-realization, expecting to express themselves, change themselves, and develop themselves. Practical ability (endowment) and practical activity determine both the necessity and the possibility of human development.

马克思、恩格斯从实践出发科学地揭示了人的发展含义。他们认为，实践是人根本的生存方式，是人能动地改变对象的现实的活动，它使人的生存和需要具有超越现实性，永远不满足于现状而要趋向于更好，永远不会停止对自然和社会环境的改变。其一，实践能力（禀赋）及实践活动是人具有主体性并具有能动性和创造性的根据，使人从根本上区别于其他动物；其二，人在改变对象的过程中也会改变自身，从而决定了人截然不同于他物：人不是既定的、一成不变的存在，而是在实践过程中不断变化，不断生长的，亦因此，人的发展也必须在他改变自然和社会的实践过程中来实现；其三，实践是人在改变客体的过程中将自己的本质力量，自己的知、情、意对象化的活动，人在这一过程中满足自我实现的需要。因此，人是对象性的存在，总是期望自我实现，期望表现自己、改变自己、发展自己。实践能力（禀赋）以及实践活动既决定了人的发展具有必要性，也决定了人的发展具有可能性。

Historical materialism provides the basis for scientifically explaining the conditions of human development. Marx and Engels created historical materialism, understanding social history and humans from the perspective that social being determines social consciousness. They held that humans possess sociality, and that human survival and development are subject to objective conditions and the laws of social development. The history of a single individual is determined by the history of individuals who preceded him or are contemporary with him. On this basis, they believed that human development depends on certain social conditions and relations, which are constantly changing. Therefore, human development is a product of history and must undergo a long process.

唯物史观为科学说明人的发展条件提供了基础。马克思、恩格斯创立唯物史观，从社会存在决定社会意识的观点出发理解社会历史和人，认为人具有社会性，人的生存发展要受到客观条件以及社会发展规律的制约，单个人的历史是由他以前的或同时代的个人的历史决定的。在此基础上他们认为，人的发展有赖于一定的社会条件和关系，社会条件和关系是不断变化的，因而人的发展是历史的产物，要经历一个长期的过程。

Marx and Engels emphasized the fundamental and decisive role of the development of productive forces in human development. They believed that although social development is the result of the interaction of multiple factors, the factor that ultimately plays a decisive role among the various factors affecting social life and historical development is the production and reproduction of material means of subsistence. Economic conditions ultimately play a decisive role. Therefore, "the mode of production of material life conditions the general process of social, political and intellectual life." [3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations. (p. 2) The sum total of the productive forces attained by humans determines the state of society. The development of productive forces is the foundation of social progress and human development. The level of development of productive forces fundamentally determines the state of human development. They also revealed the direct impact of the development of productive forces on human development, pointing out that the development of productive forces will eliminate the old division of labor, improve the working environment, liberate humans from heavy, alienated, slavish labor, and make labor a free and conscious activity, a source of enjoyment and even the first need of life. The development of productive forces will shorten people's necessary labor time and increase the "free time" for autonomous activity, expanding the space for human development.

马克思、恩格斯强调生产力发展对人的发展的基础性、根本性作用。他们认为，虽然社会发展是多种因素相互作用的结果，但在影响社会生活和历史发展的诸因素中起最终决定作用的因素是物质资料的生产和再生产，经济条件归根到底起着决定性的作用，因而“物质生活的生产方式制约着整个社会生活、政治生活和精神生活的过程”。[3](P2)人们所达到的生产力的总和决定着社会状况。生产力发展是社会进步和人的发展的基础，生产力发展水平从根本上决定着人的发展状况。他们还揭示了生产力发展对人的发展的直接影响，指出，生产力发展将消除旧式分工，改善劳动环境，将人从繁重的、异化的、奴隶般的劳动中解放出来，使劳动成为自由自觉的活动，成为人的享受甚至第一需要；生产力发展将缩短人们的必要劳动时间而增加自主活动的“自由时间”，拓展人的发展空间。

Marx and Engels emphasized that the condition of human development is constrained by social systems. Marx believed that social relations and social systems determine the extent to which an individual can develop, and that the development of humanity and society passes through three stages: relations of personal dependence, relations of material dependence, and the all-round development of the individual. The stages of personal dependence and material dependence both belong to private ownership of the means of production. Although the two have different effects on human survival and development (for example, the latter grants individuals a certain degree of freedom, etc.), fundamentally, under such economic systems and their corresponding political systems, the all-round development of the individual is impossible. Only in the third stage, the communist society, which abolishes private ownership and establishes public ownership, and truly rationalizes the socio-economic and political systems, can the relations of personal dependence and material dependence be transcended, the opposition between the individual and others and society be eliminated, and human development be guaranteed and promoted. Only then will society enter a "social form in which the free and all-round development of each individual is the fundamental principle." [4]4 “Red thread” (一根红线): A common metaphorical expression in Chinese political discourse, derived from the idea of a single thread running through a string of beads, used to indicate a consistent, unifying principle or theme.(P683) The characteristic of this social form is that it is a form of association of individuals premised on highly developed productive forces and a rational social system, an association that places the conditions for the free development and movement of individuals under their control. To this end, Marx and Engels, within the framework of Marxist political economy and the theory of scientific socialism based on historical materialism, conducted an in-depth and systematic investigation into the abolition of capitalist private ownership and the rationalization of social relations and social systems.

马克思、恩格斯强调人的发展状况要受到社会制度的制约。马克思认为，社会关系和社会制度决定着一个人能够发展到什么程度，人及社会的发展要经历人的依赖关系、物的依赖性、个人全面发展三个阶段。人的依赖关系和物的依赖性的阶段都属于生产资料私有制，虽然二者对人的生存发展具有不同的影响（例如后者赋予了人一定程度的自由等），但从根本上说，在这类经济制度以及相应的政治制度下不可能有人的全面发展，只有到了消灭私有制而建立公有制的第三个阶段即共产主义社会，真正实现社会经济制度和政治制度的合理化，才能超越人的依赖关系和物的依赖性，消除人与他人和社会的对立，保障和促进人的发展，社会才会进入“以每一个个人的全面而自由的发展为基本原则的社会形式”。[4](P683)这一社会形态的特点在于，它是以高度发达的生产力以及合理的社会制度为前提的个人的一种联合，这种联合把个人的自由发展和运动的条件置于他们的控制之下。为此，马克思、恩格斯在以唯物史观为基础的马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义理论中对消灭资本主义私有制、实现社会关系和社会制度的合理化问题进行了深入系统的探讨。

Second, the theory of human development is grounded in Marxist political economy. On the basis of revealing the laws of the emergence, development, and change of relations of production, Marxist political economy conducts a detailed analysis of capitalist relations of production. On the foundation of critically inheriting the labor theory of value of classical economics, Marx and Engels founded the theory of surplus value, exposing the secret of capitalists exploiting workers and revealing the internal contradictions of the capitalist economic system and its developmental trends. They believed that "capitalist production is not merely the production of commodities; it is essentially the production of surplus value. The worker does not produce for himself, but for capital." [3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P236) In the process of capitalist production, the capitalist, by purchasing and using the worker's labor power, appropriates without compensation the surplus value produced by the laborer, i.e., the difference between the value created by their labor and the remuneration for their labor. Therefore, surplus value is the value created by wage workers in the production process that exceeds the value of labor power and is appropriated by the capitalist without compensation. The essence of surplus value production is the capitalist's exploitation of the worker's labor. They exposed the miserable plight of workers in production and life under the capitalist system. Under the capitalist system, even the development of productive forces cannot bring about an improvement in the living conditions of workers, let alone human development. Because the capitalist steals the free time that workers create for society, the free time that the development of productive forces should have increased for workers is seized by the capitalist. Consequently, in capitalist society, workers have no free time at their own disposal. Apart from the purely physiologically necessary intervals such as sleep and eating, their entire lives are spent serving the capitalist. Their conditions of existence have not undergone fundamental change, and their abilities, individuality, and social relations cannot achieve genuine development. Marx and Engels pointed out that shortening the worker's necessary labor time depends both on the development of productive forces, i.e., the increase in labor productivity, and on the rationalization of the social system. Only in the future communist society can the shortening of necessary labor time be truly transformed into an expansion of the space for human development. Thus, by exposing the secret of capitalists exploiting workers and revealing the internal contradictions of the capitalist mode of production and its inevitable tendency to perish, Marxist political economy indicates that the abolition of capitalist private ownership is the prerequisite for human liberation and development. It provides a moral justification for criticizing the capitalist system and the logic of capital and for establishing the goal of human liberation and development, and also provides a scientific basis for realizing human liberation and human development.

第二，人的发展理论以马克思主义政治经济学为依据。马克思主义政治经济学在揭示生产关系产生、发展和变化规律的基础上，对资本主义生产关系进行了条分缕析的探讨。马克思、恩格斯在批判继承古典经济学劳动价值理论的基础上创立了剩余价值学说，揭露了资本家剥削工人的秘密，揭示了资本主义经济制度的内在矛盾及其发展趋势。他们认为，“资本主义生产不仅是商品的生产，它实质上是剩余价值的生产。工人不是为自己生产，而是为资本生产。”[3](P236)在资本主义生产过程中，资本家通过购买和使用工人的劳动力，无偿占有劳动者生产的剩余价值即其劳动创造的价值与劳动报酬之间的差额，因此，剩余价值是雇佣工人在生产过程中创造的被资本家无偿占有的超过劳动力价值的价值，剩余价值生产的实质就是资本家剥削工人的劳动。他们揭露了资本主义社会中工人在生产和生活中的悲惨遭遇。在资本主义制度下即使生产力发展也不能带来工人生存境遇的改善，更不能带来人的发展。由于资本家窃取了工人为社会创造的自由时间，生产力发展本来应当给工人增加的自由时间被资本家所侵占，因而在资本主义社会，工人没有自己支配的自由时间，一生中除睡眠饮食等纯生理上必需的间断以外，都是替资本家服务，他们的生存条件未能得到根本的改变，其能力、个性和社会关系得不到真正的发展。马克思、恩格斯指出，缩短工人的必要劳动时间既有赖于生产力发展即劳动生产率的提升，又有赖于社会制度的合理化，只有在未来共产主义社会，缩短必要劳动时间才能真正转化为拓展人的发展空间。由此可见，马克思主义政治经济学通过揭露资本家剥削工人的秘密、揭示资本主义生产方式的内在矛盾及其必然灭亡的趋势，指明了消灭资本主义私有制是人的解放和发展的前提，为批判资本主义制度和资本逻辑、确立人的解放和发展目标提供了道义上的辩护，也为实现人的解放和人的发展提供了科学依据。

Moreover, in *Capital* and its manuscripts, Marx, based on economic research and on the analysis of the laws and trends of social development through a critique of capitalist political economy, further enriched and deepened the value orientation and scientific understanding of human development. He revealed the social conditions of human development and its socio-historical character, arguing that the all-roundness of the individual is the all-roundness of his actual relations and conceptual relations, and that the all-roundly developed individual is not a product of nature, but a product of history. He distinguished three forms of human existence and development on the scale of human historical evolution, establishing the goal of realizing the all-round development and free individuality of the individual. He pointed out that "time is the space for human development," [3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P61) and that reducing necessary labor time and increasing free time is for the purpose of promoting human development; raising the level of productive forces and shortening the working day are the basic paths for human development. He explicitly put forward scientific concepts such as "free association of individuals" and "freely associated individuals," [3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P127) pointing out that the future communist society is a higher social form in which the free and all-round development of each individual is the fundamental principle. These economic-based anthropological explorations are of great significance in the formation of the theory of human development.

不仅如此，马克思在《资本论》及其手稿中，还以经济学研究为依据，基于对资本主义的政治经济学批判以及对社会发展规律和趋势的分析，进一步丰富和深化了人的发展价值取向和科学认识。他揭示了人的发展的社会条件及其社会历史性，认为个人的全面性是他的现实关系和观念关系的全面性，全面发展的个人不是自然的产物，而是历史的产物；从人类历史演进的尺度上区分了人生存发展的三种形态，确立了实现个人全面发展和自由个性的目标；指出“时间是人类发展的空间”，[3](P61)减少必要劳动时间并增加自由时间是为了促进人的发展，提高生产力水平、缩短工作日是人的发展的基本途径；明确提出了“自由人联合体”“自由联合的人”[3](P127)等科学概念，指出未来共产主义是一个更高级的、以每一个个人的全面而自由的发展为基本原则的社会形式。这些基于经济学的人学探讨在人的发展理论形成中具有重要意义。

Third, the theory of human development is supported by the theory of scientific socialism. As a doctrine concerning the conditions for the emancipation of the proletariat, scientific socialism scientifically explains the real conditions for human emancipation and points out the real path for the emancipation of the proletariat and thus of all humanity. Marx and Engels believed that in capitalist society, the prerequisite for human development is human emancipation, which is achieved through the struggle of the working class to abolish capitalist private property, realize the transformation of social systems and social relations, eliminate the constraints of the exploitative system on people, establish a public ownership economy, and realize distribution according to work and ultimately distribution according to need. Only in this way can people be liberated from the constraints of social relations that are opposed to them, eliminate alienated labor, transcend dependence on things, and secure the institutional conditions for the free and comprehensive development of individuals. Based on historical materialism and the theory of surplus value, they macroscopically predicted the trend of future social evolution, believing that with the abolition of capitalist private property and classes and the withering away of the state, humanity would enter communist society. They predicted the basic features of future communist society, namely, highly developed productive forces, immense abundance of social material wealth, “the whole of production is regulated by society,”[1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P165) the elimination of the differences between workers and peasants, between town and country, and between mental and manual labor, and the universal elevation of the people’s scientific, cultural, and moral qualities. They envisioned the change in people’s status in the future ideal society and the prospect of their free and comprehensive development, believing that in future communist society, people would enter a “union of free individuals”[3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P126) where “the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.”[1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P422) At that time, “the conditions of life which surround people and have hitherto dominated them now come under their domination and control; people for the first time become the conscious and true masters of nature, because they have become masters of their own social organization… This is the leap of humanity from the realm of necessity into the realm of freedom.”[5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P815) Precisely because they recognized the crucial constraining role of social relations on human development and considered the reality of capitalist society, they transformed the ideal goal of realizing human development into a critique of the reality of the capitalist system and devoted their lives to the struggle to thoroughly transform the capitalist social system, “to participate in the cause of overthrowing capitalist society and the state institutions it has established, and to participate in the cause of the emancipation of the modern proletariat.”[5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P1003) Thus it can be seen that the theory of scientific socialism profoundly reveals the trend of the emergence, development, and inevitable demise of the capitalist system, reveals the historical inevitability of socialism and its essence, characteristics, and laws of development, points out the path of emancipation for the working class and all humanity, predicts the prospects and features of socialist and communist society, and provides direct theoretical support for the theory of human development.

第三，人的发展理论以科学社会主义理论为支撑。作为关于无产阶级解放条件的学说，科学社会主义科学地说明了人的解放的现实条件，指出了无产阶级从而全人类解放的现实道路。马克思、恩格斯认为，在资本主义社会，人的发展的前提是人的解放，是通过工人阶级的斗争消灭资本主义私有制，实现社会制度和社会关系的变革，消除剥削制度对人的束缚，建立公有制经济，实现按劳分配和最终实现按需分配。只有这样，才能将人从与自己对立的社会关系的束缚中解放出来，消除异化劳动，扬弃物的依赖性，使个人获得自由全面发展的制度条件。他们以唯物史观和剩余价值学说为依据，宏观地预测了未来社会演进的趋势，认为随着资本主义私有制和阶级的消灭以及国家的消亡，人类将进入共产主义社会。他们预测了未来共产主义社会的基本特征，即生产力高度发达，社会物质财富极大丰富，“社会调节着整个生产”，[1](P165)消灭了工农差别、城乡差别和脑力劳动与体力劳动的差别，人民科学文化和道德素质普遍提升。他们展望了在未来理想社会中人的地位的变化以及人自由全面发展的前景，认为在未来的共产主义社会，人们将进入“每个人的自由发展是一切人的自由发展的条件”[1](P422)的“自由人联合体”，[3](P126)到那时，“人们周围的、至今统治着人们的生活条件，现在受人们的支配和控制，人们第一次成为自然界的自觉的和真正的主人，因为他们已经成为自身的社会结合的主人了……这是人类从必然王国进入自由王国的飞跃”。[5](P815)正因为认识到社会关系对人的发展至关重要的制约作用以及考虑到资本主义社会的现实，他们将实现人的发展理想目标转换为对资本主义制度现实的批判，并以毕生精力参与彻底变革资本主义社会制度的斗争，“参加推翻资本主义社会及其所建立的国家设施的事业，参加现代无产阶级的解放事业”。[5](P1003)由此可见，科学社会主义理论深刻揭示了资本主义制度产生、发展和必然灭亡的趋势，揭示了社会主义的历史必然性及其本质、特征和发展规律，指明了工人阶级以及人类解放的道路，预测了社会主义和共产主义社会的前景和特征，为人的发展理论提供了直接的理论支撑。

II. Human Development Is the Core Value of Marxism

二、人的发展是马克思主义的核心价值

The intrinsic connection between the theory of human development and Marxism lies in the fact that human development is the core value of Marxism, running through all the constituent parts of Marxist theory.

人的发展理论与马克思主义的内在关联又在于，人的发展是马克思主义的核心价值，贯穿于马克思主义理论各个组成部分中。

Marxism, which aims to change the world, has a distinct value orientation, including the abolition of private property, the elimination of exploitation, the realization of common prosperity, and the pursuit of democracy, freedom, justice, and a good life. The fundamental purpose of these value orientations is the pursuit of the complete emancipation of humanity and the realization of the free and comprehensive development of human beings. From the perspective of theoretical sources, the value orientation of human development is a critical inheritance and development of the excellent value orientations of humanity in the past, standing at the commanding height of human value orientations. From the perspective of the evolution and development of value orientations, human development is the original or fundamental value orientation within Marxist theory, containing all the value demands of Marxism. From the perspective of the hierarchy of value orientations, human development is the highest-level value orientation at the level of the conception of history, possessing the greatest degree of value inclusiveness and value unifying power. From the perspective of the adaptability of value orientations, the value orientation of human development is both adapted to current social reality and points toward the future ideal society. Therefore, the value orientation of human development is the core value of Marxism, that is, its value purpose. It runs like a red thread through all the constituent parts of Marxist theory, becoming their common value dimension.

以改变世界为宗旨的马克思主义具有鲜明的价值取向，包括消灭私有制、消灭剥削、实现共同富裕，以及追求民主、自由、公正，美好生活等。这些价值取向的根本旨归，就是追求人的彻底解放并实现人的自由全面发展。从理论来源的角度看，人的发展价值取向是对人类以往优秀价值取向的批判继承和发展，站在了人类价值取向的制高点。从价值取向演进、发展的角度看，人的发展是马克思主义理论中本源性或根本性的价值取向，蕴含着马克思主义的全部价值诉求。从价值取向的层次上看，人的发展是历史观层面的、最高层次的价值取向，具有最大程度的价值包容性和价值统摄力。从价值取向的适应性上看，人的发展价值取向既适应当下的社会现实，又指向未来的理想社会。因此，人的发展价值取向是马克思主义的核心价值即价值旨归，它像一根红线贯穿于马克思主义理论各个组成部分中，成为它们共同的价值维度。

First, the value orientation of human development runs through Marxist philosophy. Marx and Engels argued that the mission of philosophy is to change the world, to revolutionize the existing world, and to practically oppose and change existing things, the most important of which is to change the old social system and social relations. They believed that philosophy is intrinsically linked to changing the world: on the one hand, philosophy provides a correct worldview and methodology for changing the world, from which conclusions about changing the world can be deduced. For example, they revealed the revolutionary nature inherent in materialist philosophy. There is an inevitable connection between materialist doctrine and communism and socialism; mature communism directly originates from French materialism, and from the relationship between people and the environment, the necessity of changing the environment is deduced: “Since it is the environment that shapes people, the environment must be shaped in a way that is appropriate to human nature.”[6]6 The phrase “the Bible of the working class” is a well-known epithet for Marx’s *Capital*, reflecting its authoritative status for the international labor movement.(P335) Another example is their emphasis on the revolutionary nature of dialectics, which holds that dialectics does not worship anything; by its very essence it is critical and revolutionary, because dialectics holds that everything undergoes a process of emergence, development, and demise, and transforms into other things, that is, is replaced by new things. On the other hand, philosophy provides a reasonable value orientation for changing the world. The mission and purpose of Marxist philosophy to change the world require that it not only correctly explain the world, reflect the essence of social phenomena and the laws of social development, and provide people with guidance for scientific understanding, but also reasonably clarify what the world ought to be like and provide people with guidance on value orientation. Historical materialism, as a general view and fundamental perspective on social history, embodies both the pursuit of conformity to laws, containing a macroscopic scientific understanding of the development of social history, and the pursuit of conformity to purposes that guide people in changing the world and promoting social progress, containing a macroscopic interpretation of the meaning of social historical processes, events, and figures, as well as a value setting for the direction, vision, and goals of social development. The concentrated expression of its conformity to purposes, that is, its value orientation, is the pursuit of human emancipation and development. In this regard, the free and comprehensive development of human beings is the value starting point and value destination of Marxist philosophy. Precisely because the value orientation of human development is essentially at the philosophical level, it takes on different specific meanings in different eras: in its time, it embodied the practical demands of Marx and Engels to abolish exploitation and liberate the working class from alienated labor; in the contemporary era, it embodies the people’s desire to live a happier, better, and more meaningful life, and the pursuit of satisfying the people’s growing needs for a better life.

第一，人的发展价值取向贯穿于马克思主义哲学中。马克思、恩格斯主张哲学的使命是改变世界，使现存世界革命化，实际地反对并改变现存事物，其中最重要的就是改变旧的社会制度和社会关系。他们认为，哲学与改变世界内在关联：一方面，哲学为改变世界提供正确的世界观和方法论，从中可以推论出改变世界的结论。例如，他们曾揭示了唯物主义哲学内在蕴含着的革命性。唯物主义学说同共产主义和社会主义之间有着必然的联系，成熟的共产主义是直接起源于法国唯物主义的，并从人与环境的关系中推论出改变环境的必要性：“既然是环境造就人，那就必须以合乎人性的方式去造就环境”。[6](P335)又如他们曾强调辩证法的革命性，认为辩证法不崇拜任何东西，按其本质来说它是批判的和革命的，因为辩证法认为，任何事物都要经历发生、发展和灭亡的过程，都要转化成为其他事物即为新的事物所替代。另一方面，哲学为改变世界提供合理的价值取向。马克思主义哲学改变世界的使命和宗旨，要求它不仅能够正确地说明世界，反映社会现象的本质和社会发展的规律，为人们提供科学认识的指导，还能够合理地阐明世界应当是怎样的，为人们提供价值取向的指导。唯物史观作为关于社会历史总的看法和根本观点，既体现着合规律性追求，包含着对社会历史发展的宏观层面的科学认识，也体现着指导人们改变世界、推动社会进步的合目的性追求，包含着对社会历史进程、事件和人物宏观层面的意义解读以及对社会发展方向、愿景及目标的价值设定，其合目的性即价值取向的集中体现，就是追求人的解放和发展。就此而言，人的自由全面发展是马克思主义哲学的价值起点和价值归宿。正因为人的发展价值取向本质上是哲学层面的，所以它在不同的时代会具有不同的具体含义：在当年，它体现着马克思、恩格斯消灭剥削、将工人阶级从异化劳动中解放出来的现实诉求；在当代，它体现着人们生活得更加幸福、更加美好、更有意义的愿望，体现为人民满足日益增长的美好生活需要的追求。

Second, the value orientation of human development runs through Marxist political economy. The political economy founded by Marx and Engels on the basis of critically inheriting classical economics takes capitalist relations of production as its main object of study, proceeds from the interests of the proletariat, investigates the economic phenomena and economic laws of capitalist society, and reveals the historical inevitability of the emergence and development of capitalism as well as the trend and conditions of its inevitable demise. In their research, they were both based on scientificity and consciously represented the interests of the proletariat, embodying a distinct class character and a value stance of pursuing the emancipation of the working class and all humanity and the free and comprehensive development of human beings.

第二，人的发展价值取向贯穿于马克思主义政治经济学中。马克思和恩格斯在批判继承古典经济学的基础上创立的政治经济学，以资本主义生产关系为主要研究对象，从无产阶级利益出发，探究资本主义社会的经济现象和经济规律，揭示了资本主义形成和发展的历史必然性及其必然灭亡的趋势和条件。他们在研究中既基于科学性又自觉代表无产阶级利益，体现了鲜明的阶级性和追求工人阶级以及全人类解放和人的自由全面发展的价值立场。

The value orientation of human development in Marxist political economy is prominently embodied in works such as the *Communist Manifesto*, *Capital*, *Critique of the Gotha Programme*, and *Anti-Dühring*. In these works, Marx and Engels deeply and systematically investigated the capitalist mode of production as well as relations of production and exchange, profoundly exposed and sharply criticized the essence of the capitalist system and the logic of capital, revealed the inevitable demise of the capitalist mode of production, pointed out the path of emancipation for the working class, and established the goal of human development. On the basis of exposing the secret of capitalists exploiting workers’ surplus value, they demonstrated the value irrationality of the capitalist system and the logic of capital, sternly condemned the crimes of capitalists and the capitalist system, and expressed strong dissatisfaction with and deep concern for the conditions of workers’ survival and development. Marx pointed out incisively: “Capital comes into the world dripping from head to foot, from every pore, with blood and dirt.” [4]4 “Red thread” (一根红线): A common metaphorical expression in Chinese political discourse, derived from the idea of a single thread running through a string of beads, used to indicate a consistent, unifying principle or theme.(P871) In the process of capitalist production, “all means for the development of production transform themselves into means of domination over and exploitation of the producers; they mutilate the worker into a fragment of a human being, degrade him to the level of an appendage of a machine, destroy every remnant of charm in his work and turn it into a hated toil.” [3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P289) He also borrowed the saying that capitalists, in their pursuit of profit, will risk everything, trample on all human laws, and even risk the gallows, to reveal the greedy visage of capital and capitalists in their relentless pursuit of maximum profit. Taking human emancipation and development as their ultimate aim, Marx and Engels also revealed the laws and trends of development of the capitalist mode of production, pointing out that the contradiction between the private ownership of the means of production and the social character of production inevitably leads to periodic economic crises, and that only the implementation of public ownership of the means of production and a planned economy can fundamentally overcome this contradiction. In a communist society where productive forces are highly developed, collective wealth is extremely abundant, society owns the means of production, social production is “regulated in accordance with a plan, and according to the needs of the community as a whole and of each individual member” [5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P811), and the principle of “from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs” is implemented, labor itself will become life’s prime want, and human beings will truly achieve free and comprehensive development, “at last become the masters of their own form of social organization, and thereby become the masters of nature, their own masters — free human beings.” [5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P817)

马克思主义政治经济学关于人的发展价值取向突出地体现在《共产党宣言》《资本论》《哥达纲领批判》《反杜林论》等著作中。马克思、恩格斯在这些著作中深入系统地探究了资本主义生产方式以及生产关系和交换关系，对资本主义制度和资本逻辑的本质进行了深刻的揭露和尖锐的批判，揭示了资本主义生产方式必然灭亡的趋势，指明了工人阶级解放的道路，确立了人的发展的目标。他们在揭示资本家剥削工人剩余价值秘密的基础上，论证了资本主义制度和资本逻辑在价值上的不合理性，严厉谴责了资本家和资本主义制度的罪恶，表达了对工人生存和发展状况的强烈不满和深切关注。马克思一针见血地指出：“资本来到世间，从头到脚，每个毛孔都滴着血和肮脏的东西。”[4](P871)在资本主义生产过程中，“一切提高社会劳动生产力的方法都是靠牺牲工人个人来实现的；一切发展生产的手段都转变为统治和剥削生产者的手段，都使工人畸形发展，成为局部的人，把工人贬低为机器的附属品，使工人受劳动的折磨”。[3](P289)他还借用资本家为追逐利润而铤而走险、践踏一切人间法律甚至冒绞首的危险的说法，揭示了资本和资本家不顾一切地追求利益最大化的贪婪嘴脸。马克思、恩格斯还以人的解放和发展为旨归，揭示了资本主义生产方式的发展规律和趋势，指出生产资料私人占有和生产的社会化之间的矛盾必然会导致周期性的经济危机，只有实行生产资料公有制和计划经济才能从根本上克服这一矛盾。在生产力高度发达、集体财富极大丰富、社会占有生产资料、社会生产“按照社会总体和每个成员的需要”[5](P811)进行有计划的调节并实行各尽所能、按需分配的共产主义社会，劳动本身将成为人生活的第一需要，人将真正实现自由全面发展，“终于成为自己的社会结合的主人，从而也就成为自然界的主人，成为自身的主人——自由的人”。[5](P817)

As can be seen from the above, the analysis and critique of the capitalist mode of production in Marxist political economy are ultimately all directed toward human emancipation and development, taking the free and comprehensive development of human beings as their ultimate aim. Marxist political economy research and the Marxist theory of human development are intrinsically linked, complementing and mutually reinforcing each other. It is precisely for this reason that *Capital* is hailed as “the Bible of the working class,” and Marxist political economy research is widely recognized as both conducive to promoting the creation, transformation, and realization of value, and helpful for a profound understanding of the complete emancipation and free and comprehensive development of human beings.

以上可见，马克思主义政治经济学对资本主义生产方式的分析批判归根结底都是指向人的解放和发展，以人的自由全面发展为旨归；马克思主义政治经济学研究与马克思主义人的发展理论是内在关联、相辅相成、相互促进的。正因为如此，《资本论》才被誉为“工人阶级的圣经”，马克思主义政治经济学研究才被公认为既有利于促进价值的创造、转化和实现，又有助于深刻理解人的彻底解放和自由全面发展。

Third, the value orientation of human development runs through the theory of scientific socialism. Scientific socialism, as a doctrine concerning the abolition of capitalist private ownership of the means of production, the elimination of class exploitation and oppression, and the realization of the emancipation of the proletariat and all humanity, and as a theory concerning the essence, characteristics, conditions, and laws of socialism, not only deeply analyzes and grasps the fundamental contradictions and laws of development of human society, representing a scientific understanding of historical development and social reality, but also directly embodies the aim of realizing the emancipation of the proletariat and all humanity and achieving the free and comprehensive development of human beings, constituting the value orientation of the working class. It is precisely for this reason that the entire theory of scientific socialism is argued around the goals of the emancipation of the proletariat and humanity and human development, and is intrinsically unified with the Marxist theory of human development.

第三，人的发展价值取向贯穿于科学社会主义理论中。科学社会主义作为关于消灭资本主义生产资料私有制、消灭阶级剥削和压迫、实现无产阶级和全人类的解放的学说，作为关于社会主义本质、特征、条件和规律的理论，既深刻分析和把握了人类社会基本矛盾和发展规律，是对历史发展和社会现实的科学认识，又直接贯穿着实现无产阶级和全人类的解放以及实现人的自由全面发展的宗旨，是工人阶级的价值取向。正因为如此，整个科学社会主义理论都是围绕无产阶级和人类解放以及人的发展目标来论证的，与马克思主义人的发展理论内在统一。

The intrinsic connection between scientific socialism and the theory of human development lies in the intrinsic unity of the value orientation of proletarian emancipation and human emancipation. Marx and Engels believed that the emancipation of the proletariat is fundamentally consistent with the emancipation of all humanity. In the *Communist Manifesto*, they pointed out that bourgeois private property is the final form of private property: “The modern bourgeois private property is the final and most complete expression of the system of producing and appropriating products, that is based on class antagonisms, on the exploitation of the many by the few.” [1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P414) Therefore, “the theory of the Communists may be summed up in the single sentence: Abolition of private property.” [1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P414) Abolishing bourgeois private property means abolishing all private property, which in turn means the emancipation of the working class and thus the emancipation of humanity, and the prospect of complete human emancipation is the free and comprehensive development of human beings. Precisely on the basis of this theoretical logic, Marx and Engels predicted that after the abolition of capitalist private property, and subsequently the abolition of classes and the withering away of the state, humanity will enter a “union of free individuals” where each person develops freely. This theoretical logic shows that human development is the fundamental value aim of the doctrine of scientific socialism.

科学社会主义与人的发展理论的内在关联，在于无产阶级解放与人类解放在价值取向上是内在统一的。马克思、恩格斯认为，无产阶级解放同全人类解放具有根本的一致性。他们在《共产党宣言》中指出，资产阶级私有制是私有制的最后形式，“现代的资产阶级私有制是建立在阶级对立上面、建立在一些人对另一些人的剥削上面的产品生产和占有的最后而又最完备的表现”。[1](P414)因此，“共产党人可以把自己的理论概括为一句话：消灭私有制”。[1](P414)消灭资产阶级私有制就意味着消灭一切私有制，就意味着工人阶级解放从而人类的解放，而人的彻底解放的前景就是人的自由全面发展。正是基于这一理论逻辑，马克思、恩格斯预言，在消灭资本主义私有制进而消灭阶级以及国家消亡后，人类将进入每个人自由发展的“自由人联合体”。这一理论逻辑表明，人的发展是科学社会主义学说的根本价值旨归。

The intrinsic connection between scientific socialism and the theory of human development also lies in the consistent value orientation of human emancipation and human development. From the perspective of the developmental process, human emancipation and human development are not entirely identical, but their difference is a difference of stages based on essential unity, a concrete manifestation and requirement of the same value orientation at different stages of social development. There is a logical and historical progressive relationship between human emancipation and human development. Logically, human emancipation is the prerequisite for human development, and human development is the goal and destination of human emancipation. Only when human beings achieve complete emancipation, overcoming the constraints of labor alienation and private ownership — that is, relations of personal dependence and the dependence on things — eliminating the game of interests and struggles among people, and aligning the fundamental interests of the individual with others and society, can they truly realize free and comprehensive development. Correspondingly, historically, human emancipation is primarily the task and goal of the revolutionary period, while human development is primarily the task and goal of the construction period. As Marx and Engels once pointed out, once private property is abolished and public ownership of the means of production is implemented, society will enter the communist stage as a union of free individuals, and human beings will finally be able to achieve free and comprehensive development. It is precisely for this reason that they elevated the demand for “human emancipation” into the goal of “human development.” In this regard, the essential requirement and fundamental goal of socialism and communism is human development — that is, enabling people to break free from alienated labor, fully display and develop their creativity, realize their essence, develop comprehensive social relations, and establish free individuality. As Binkley pointed out, “In Marx’s sense, socialism is a necessary condition for a society in which everyone can realize himself in freedom and creativity.” [7]7 “一块整钢” (yī kuài zhěng gāng) — a metaphor used by Lenin to describe Marxism as an integral and indivisible whole, where all its components are organically connected.(P102)

科学社会主义与人的发展理论的内在关联，又在于人的解放与人的发展在价值取向上是一以贯之的。从发展过程上看，人的解放与人的发展并不完全相同，但二者的差异是在本质上统一基础上的阶段性的差异，是同一价值取向在社会发展不同阶段的具体表现和要求。人的解放与人的发展之间是一种逻辑和历史递进的关系。从逻辑上看，人的解放是人的发展的前提，人的发展是人的解放的目标和归宿，人只有获得了彻底解放，克服劳动异化和私有制的制约即人的依赖关系和物的依赖性，消除人与人之间的利益博弈和争斗，使人与他人和社会在根本利益上一致，才可能真正实现自由全面发展。与之相对应，从历史上看，人的解放主要是革命时期的任务和目标，人的发展主要是建设时期的任务和目标。正如马克思、恩格斯曾指出的，一旦消灭私有制而实行生产资料公有制，社会将进入作为自由人联合体的共产主义阶段，人将终于可以实现自由全面发展。正因为如此，他们将“人的解放”诉求提升和转变为“人的发展”目标。就此而言，社会主义和共产主义的本质要求和根本目标就是人的发展，即使人摆脱异化劳动而充分展示和发展自己的创造性，实现自己的本质，发展全面的社会关系，建立自由个性。正如宾克莱所指出的，“按马克思的意思，社会主义是一个使人人都能在自由和创造力中实现他自己的社会的必要条件”。[7](P102)

The establishment of the value orientation of free and comprehensive development of the individual is of great significance for the creation of scientific socialism. As is well known, socialism changed from utopian to scientific because Marx and Engels placed it on a realistic foundation, providing it with the scientific cognitive foundations of historical materialism and the theory of surplus value, thereby achieving the unity of the value orientation of socialism and scientific cognition. Moreover, socialism became scientific also because Marx and Engels critically inherited the concepts of modern humanism and utopian socialism that concerned themselves with human beings and sought human liberation, transcending the bourgeois thinkers’ demand for “political emancipation” and the utopian socialists’ demand to “establish a kingdom of reason and eternal justice”[5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P393), and put forward the demand for the thorough abolition of private property and the realization of “human emancipation,” i.e., the thorough liberation of humanity. On this basis, they further set the goal of the free and comprehensive development of the individual. As they pointed out, “Communism differs from all previous movements in that it overturns the basis of all old relations of production and intercourse, and for the first time consciously treats all naturally evolved premises as the creations of previous generations, strips these premises of their natural character, and subjects them to the power of the united individuals.”[1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P202) This understanding positioned the goal pursued by the socialist (communist) movement as the thorough liberation and free and comprehensive development of humanity, enabling scientific socialism to surpass modern humanism and utopian socialism in its value orientation and to achieve thoroughness.

人的自由全面发展价值取向的确立对科学社会主义创立具有重要意义。众所周知，社会主义从空想变为科学是因为马克思、恩格斯将其置于了现实的基础之上，为其提供了唯物史观和剩余价值学说两个方面的科学认识基础，实现了社会主义价值取向与科学认识的统一。此外，社会主义变为科学还在于马克思、恩格斯批判继承了近代人道主义和空想社会主义关注人、寻求人的解放的理念，超越了资产阶级思想家人的“政治解放”诉求以及空想社会主义者“想建立理性和永恒正义的王国”[5](P393)的诉求，提出了彻底消灭私有制、实现“人的解放”即人的彻底解放要求，并在此基础上进一步设定了人的自由全面发展的目标。正如他们所指出的，“共产主义和所有过去的运动不同的地方在于：它推翻一切旧的生产关系和交往关系的基础，并且第一次自觉地把一切自发形成的前提看做是前人的创造，消除这些前提的自发性，使这些前提受联合起来的个人的支配。”[1](P202)这一理解将社会主义（共产主义）运动追求的目标定位于人的彻底解放和自由全面发展，使科学社会主义在价值取向上超越了近代人道主义和空想社会主义，具有了彻底性。

III. The Significance of Clarifying the Status of the Theory of Human Development in Marxism

三、明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中地位的意义

Human development, as the core value orientation of Marxism, is centrally embodied in the theory of human development. Clarifying the status of the theory of human development in Marxism and highlighting the Marxist value orientation of human development have important theoretical and practical significance.

人的发展作为马克思主义的核心价值取向，集中蕴含于人的发展理论中。明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，凸显马克思主义人的发展价值取向，具有重要的理论和现实意义。

Clarifying the status of the theory of human development in Marxism and highlighting the Marxist value orientation of human development have important theoretical significance: it helps to confirm the consistency of the value orientation among the various components of Marxist theory and the integrity of Marxist theory as “a single block of steel,” to more consciously deepen and enrich the value orientation of Marxism, and to comprehensively advance the development of Marxism.

明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，凸显马克思主义人的发展价值取向，具有重要的理论意义：有助于确认马克思主义理论各组成部分之间在价值取向上的一致性以及马克思主义理论作为“一块整钢”的整体性，更加自觉地深化和丰富马克思主义价值取向，全面推进马克思主义发展。

The classical writers particularly emphasized that Marxism is a whole, emphasizing the internal connections among its components. As Lenin said, “The whole spirit of Marxism, its whole system, requires that each proposition be considered (α) historically, (β) in connection with others, and (γ) in connection with concrete historical experience.”[8](P785) The key to grasping the integrity of Marxism is to clarify the internal connections among the various parts of Marxism. The reason Marxist philosophy, political economy, and the theory of scientific socialism, as well as other Marxist theories, can be called Marxist theory is that they all contain certain common factors. These “common factors” are the scientific cognition and the common positions, viewpoints, and methods in value orientation that run through the various Marxist theories; they are the theoretical core of Marxism.

经典作家特别强调马克思主义是一个整体，强调其组成部分之间的内在联系，正如列宁所说，“马克思主义的全部精神，它的整个体系，要求人们对每一个原理都要（α）历史地，（β）都要同其他原理联系起来，（γ）都要同具体的历史经验联系起来加以考察”。[8](P785)把握马克思主义整体性的关键是明确马克思主义各部分之间的内在关联。马克思主义哲学、政治经济学和科学社会主义理论以及马克思主义的其他理论之所以能称为马克思主义理论，就是因为它们都包含着某些共同的因素，这“共同的因素”就是贯穿于马克思主义诸种理论之中的科学认识以及价值取向上共同的立场、观点和方法，它们是马克思主义的理论内核。

Regarding the positions, viewpoints, and methods in scientific cognition that run through the various components of Marxism, Marx, Engels, and Lenin have discussed them extensively. They have revealed the internal connections among the parts of Marxism in terms of scientific cognition. For example, when discussing economic research, Marx pointed out that the reason he could deeply analyze the essence of the capitalist mode of production and reveal its laws and trends of development in *Capital* was that he employed the research method of materialist dialectics, which was created on the basis of critically transforming Hegelian philosophy, and frankly admitted, “I openly acknowledge myself as the pupil of that great thinker.”[3]3 “Union of free individuals” (自由人联合体): A term used by Marx and Engels in *Capital* to describe the form of social organization in a future communist society, where individuals collectively control the means of production and their own social relations.(P94) Precisely because the connection between Marxist political economy and dialectics is so close, Lenin believed that “it is impossible to fully understand Marx’s *Capital*, especially its first chapter, without having studied and understood the whole of Hegel’s *Logic*.”[9](P151) Another example, as mentioned above, is Engels’ discussion in *Anti-Dühring* of the role of materialist dialectics in the creation of historical materialism and the theory of surplus value, as well as his further understanding in the preface to *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*: “Scientific socialism is essentially a German product and could only arise in a country where classical philosophy had preserved the living tradition of conscious dialectics, i.e., in Germany.”[5]5 “Conformity to laws” (合规律性) and “conformity to purposes” (合目的性): A paired conceptual distinction in Chinese Marxist philosophy, referring respectively to the objective, law-governed character of historical development and the subjective, goal-oriented character of human practical activity.(P746) According to the classical writers’ discussions, the common positions, viewpoints, and methods in scientific cognition among the three components of Marxism are mainly the basic principles of Marxist philosophy in scientific cognition, such as the basic principle of materialism of seeking truth from facts, materialist dialectics, epistemology, and historical materialism. Each of these components contains a series of important contents. For example, historical materialism includes the principles of the relationship between social being and social consciousness, the relationship between productive forces and relations of production, the relationship between the economic base and the superstructure, as well as principles concerning the laws and mechanisms of social development.

关于贯穿于马克思主义各组成部分中的科学认识方面的立场、观点和方法，马克思、恩格斯、列宁多有论述，他们曾揭示了马克思主义各部分之间在科学认识上的内在关联。例如，马克思在谈到经济研究时指出，他之所以能够在《资本论》中深刻分析资本主义生产方式的本质并揭示其发展规律和趋势，是因为运用了在批判改造黑格尔哲学基础上创立的唯物辩证法这一研究方法，并坦言“我公开承认我是这位大思想家的学生”。[3](P94)正因为马克思主义政治经济学与辩证法的联系如此密切，所以列宁认为“不钻研和不理解黑格尔的全部逻辑学，就不能完全理解马克思的《资本论》，特别是它的第1章”。[9](P151)又如上文所述，恩格斯在《反杜林论》中对唯物辩证法在唯物史观和剩余价值学说创立中作用的论述，以及他在《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》的序言中对此作出的进一步理解：“科学社会主义本质上就是德国的产物，而且也只能产生在古典哲学还生气勃勃地保存着自觉的辩证法传统的国家，即在德国。”[5](P746)根据经典作家的论述，马克思主义三个组成部分在科学认识上共同的立场、观点和方法，主要就是马克思主义哲学在科学认识方面的基本原理，如唯物主义实事求是的基本原则、唯物辩证法、认识论、唯物史观等。其中每一部分又蕴含着一系列重要内容，例如在唯物史观中就包括社会存在与社会意识关系的原理、生产力与生产关系的原理、经济基础与上层建筑关系的原理，以及关于社会发展规律和机制的原理等。

Regarding the positions, viewpoints, and methods in value orientation that run through the various parts of Marxism, there are also many discussions in the works of the classical writers. For example, as mentioned earlier, Marx’s critique of the capitalist system and capitalists in his economic research. Marx’s analysis of capitalist economic phenomena aimed to critique the capitalist system. This critique was both a scientific analysis and a moral and value judgment, permeated with deep concern for the living conditions of workers and the value pursuit of human liberation and development. A typical case is *Capital*, which, on the basis of analyzing capitalist economic activities, reveals, demonstrates, and condemns the irrationality of the capitalist system in terms of value. By exposing the crimes of capital and capitalists, it expresses strong dissatisfaction with and deep concern for the living and developmental conditions of workers. In his *The Three Sources and Three Component Parts of Marxism*, Lenin directly pointed out the common value stance and value function of Marxist philosophy and economics, stating, “Only the philosophical materialism of Marxism showed the proletariat the way out of the spiritual slavery in which all oppressed classes have hitherto languished. Only the economic theory of Marxism explained the real position of the proletariat in the general system of capitalism.”[10](P314)

关于贯穿于马克思主义各部分之中的价值取向方面的立场、观点和方法，在经典作家的论著中也多有论述，例如前述马克思在经济学研究中对于资本主义制度和资本家的批判。马克思对资本主义经济现象的分析旨在对资本主义制度进行批判，这种批判既是科学的剖析也是道义和价值的审判，贯穿着对工人生存状况的深切关注以及人的解放和发展的价值追求，其典型的案例，如《资本论》在分析资本主义经济活动的基础上揭示、论证并谴责了资本主义制度价值上的不合理性，通过揭露资本和资本家的罪恶，表达了对工人生存发展状况的强烈不满和深切关注。列宁在《马克思主义的三个来源和三个组成部分》中，更是直接指出了马克思主义哲学、经济学共同的价值立场和价值功能，指出“只有马克思主义的哲学唯物主义，才给无产阶级指明了如何摆脱一切被压迫阶级至今深受其害的精神奴役的出路。只有马克思的经济理论，才阐明了无产阶级在整个资本主义制度中的真正地位”。[10](P314)

Comparatively speaking, people have fully affirmed and elaborated on the consistency of the various parts of Marxism in terms of scientific cognition, but have paid insufficient attention to their consistency in value orientation. The positions, viewpoints, and methods of Marxism in value orientation, i.e., its core values, are the realization of the thorough liberation and free and comprehensive development of humanity. All of Marxist theory is articulated around this value orientation. This value orientation is centrally embodied in the theory of human development. Clarifying the status of the theory of human development in Marxism helps to establish the status of human development as the position, viewpoint, and method of Marxism in value orientation, to strengthen the consistency of the value orientation among the various components of Marxism, and to confirm the integrity of Marxism as “a single block of steel” from the perspective of value orientation. This is of great significance for the innovation and development of Marxism.

比较而言，人们对马克思主义各部分在科学认识上的一致性已有充分的肯定和阐述，而对其价值取向上的一致性则重视不够。马克思主义价值取向方面的立场、观点和方法即其核心价值，就是实现人的彻底解放和自由全面发展，马克思主义的全部理论都是围绕着这一价值取向来言说的。这一价值取向集中蕴含于人的发展理论中。明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，有助于确立人的发展作为马克思主义价值取向方面的立场、观点和方法的地位，强化马克思主义各组成部分在价值取向上的一致性，从价值取向上确认马克思主义作为“一块整钢”的整体性，这对于创新和发展马克思主义具有重要意义。

Clarifying the position of the theory of human development in Marxism and highlighting the value orientation of Marxist human development have important practical significance. This helps to enhance Marxism’s ability to address deep-seated problems in social life and strengthen Marxism’s function of guiding social progress and promoting human development. The practical character of Marxism determines that it has the dual mission and function of understanding the world and transforming the world. “The main purpose of Marxism is not to contemplate the existing world, but to actively transform it.” [10](P5-6) Practicality not only requires Marxism to correctly grasp the world, but also demands that it examine historical phenomena with a posture of internally intervening in the historical process, guide human activities, and intervene in the course of historical development, “actually opposing and changing existing things,” [1]1 The original Chinese text here uses the phrase "从事实际活动的、现实的人" (congshi shiji huodong de, xianshi de ren), which is a standard rendering of Marx and Engels's concept of "real, active human beings" (wirkliche, tätige Menschen) from *The German Ideology*.(P155) especially changing unreasonable social systems and social relations. To this end, Marxism both reveals the laws and trends of social development and reflects the demands of human development, establishing a value orientation centered on the free and comprehensive development of the human person. Clarifying the position of the theory of human development in Marxism will highlight the value orientation of Marxist human development, enabling Marxism to stand both at the highest peak of social historical understanding and at the commanding height of social morality, thereby more effectively responding to various problems of value choice in social development, and fundamentally assuming the mission of setting social development goals, guiding human behavior, and promoting social progress and the free and comprehensive development of the human person.

明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，凸显马克思主义人的发展价值取向，具有重要的现实意义，其有助于提升马克思主义解答社会生活中深层次问题的能力，强化马克思主义引领社会进步和促进人的发展的功能。马克思主义的实践性决定了它具有认识世界和改造世界的双重使命和功能。“马克思主义的主要目的不是观赏现存的世界，而是对它进行积极的改造。”[10](P5-6)实践性不仅要求马克思主义正确地把握世界，更要求它以内在地介入历史过程的姿态审视历史现象，引导人的活动、干预历史发展的进程，“实际地反对并改变现存的事物”，[1](P155)特别是改变不合理的社会制度和社会关系。为此，马克思主义既揭示了社会发展的规律和趋势，又反映了人的发展要求，确立了以人的自由全面发展为核心的价值取向。明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，将彰显马克思主义人的发展价值取向，使马克思主义既能站在社会历史认识的最高峰，也能站在社会道义的制高点，能够更加有效地应对社会发展中各种价值选择方面的问题，从根本上担负起设定社会发展目标、引领人的行为、促进社会进步和人的自由全面发展的使命。

In contemporary China, where the principal contradiction in society has transformed, clarifying the position of the theory of human development in Marxism and highlighting the value orientation of Marxist human development is particularly important. Because the two problems of unbalanced development and insufficient development constrain, from different angles, the degree to which people can satisfy their needs for a better life and affect people’s survival and development, a key to resolving the principal contradiction in society is to clarify the relationship between solving the problem of insufficient development and solving the problem of unbalanced development. Needless to say, because the natures of these two problems are different, the focal points for solving them are also different. Solving the problem of insufficient development must be achieved through further development, while solving the problem of unbalanced development must be achieved through adjusting social relations. The two may even involve contradictions or conflicts in reality. This requires establishing a higher-level value measure above them that can govern both, and this is human development. The state of human development is the fundamental measure and terminal display for judging the success or failure of social systems and policies. Therefore, whether solving the problem of insufficient development or solving the problem of unbalanced development, both should take benefiting human development as their ultimate purpose. Only at the level of human development can a thorough explanation and a scientific solution be given to the relationship between solving the problem of unbalanced development and solving the problem of insufficient development. In this regard, the theory of human development can provide fundamental value guidance and basic principles for formulating social development policies. Based on the requirements of human development and satisfying the needs for a better life, it is necessary to further strengthen economic, social, cultural, and environmental construction to solve the problem of insufficient development; to further realize social fairness to solve the problem of unbalanced development; and also to timely adjust the relationship between the two types of contradictions according to the focus of people’s needs and changes in actual conditions, maintaining a dynamic and reasonable tension between them so that they complement and promote each other. Clarifying the position of the theory of human development in Marxism and highlighting the value orientation of Marxist human development helps to elucidate the relationship between solving unbalanced development and solving insufficient development, providing a scientific basis for solving the problem of insufficient development, providing value support for solving the problem of unbalanced development, adjusting conflicts of interest in social development, formulating reasonable social policies, and guiding and regulating people’s behavior, thereby strengthening Marxism’s mission and function of guiding social progress and promoting human development.

在社会主要矛盾转化的当代中国，明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，凸显马克思主义人的发展价值取向尤为重要。由于不平衡的发展和不充分的发展两个问题从不同角度制约着人们满足美好生活需要的程度，影响着人们的生存和发展，因而解决社会主要矛盾的一个关键，就是厘清解决不充分的发展问题与解决不平衡的发展问题之间的关系。毋庸讳言，由于这两个问题的性质不同，解决它们的着力点也是不同的，解决不充分的发展问题要通过进一步的发展来实现，解决不平衡的发展问题则要通过调整社会关系来实现，二者在现实中可能存在着矛盾甚至冲突。这就要求在二者之上确立一种更高层次的、能统摄二者的价值尺度，这就是人的发展。人的发展状况是判定社会制度和政策成败得失的根本尺度和终端显示，因而无论是解决不充分的发展问题还是解决不平衡的发展问题，都应当以有利于人的发展为旨归。只有在人的发展层面，才能对解决不平衡发展问题与解决不充分发展问题之间的关系给予透彻的说明和科学的解决方案。就此而言，人的发展理论可以为制定社会发展的方针政策提供根本的价值遵循和基本原则。基于人的发展和满足美好生活需要的要求，既要进一步加强经济、社会、文化和环境建设，解决不充分的发展问题，又要进一步实现社会公平，解决不平衡的发展问题，还要根据人们需要的重点和现实条件的变化而适时调节解决两种矛盾之间的关系，在二者之间保持一种动态、合理的张力，使其相辅相成、相互促进。明确人的发展理论在马克思主义中的地位，凸显马克思主义人的发展价值取向，有助于阐明解决不平衡的发展与解决不充分的发展之间的关系，为解决不充分发展问题提供科学依据，为解决不平衡发展问题、调整社会发展中的利益冲突、制定合理的社会政策以及引导和规范人们的行为提供价值支撑，强化马克思主义引领社会进步、促进人的发展的使命和功能。

(Author’s brief introduction: Chen Xinxia, Senior Professor of Capital Normal University, Doctoral Supervisor of the School of Marxism)

（作者简介：陈新夏，首都师范大学资深教授、马克思主义学院博士生导师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心