Mao Zedong’s Thought on Ideological and Political Education in Higher Education and Its Contemporary Implications (1949–1966)

Xi Jinping emphasizes: “Ideological and political work in higher education concerns the fundamental question of what kind of people higher education cultivates, how it cultivates them, and for whom it cultivates them.” Resolving this “fundamental question” was also the fundamental goal of ideological and political work in higher education after the founding of New China. Facing new changes in the domestic and international situation, Mao Zedong creatively proposed many important measures to strengthen ideological and political work in higher education. Exploring Mao Zedong’s thought on ideological and political education in higher education and its contemporary implications is of important practical significance for ideological and political work in higher education in the historical juncture of the New Era to better serve the cultivation of new generations capable of shouldering the mission of national rejuvenation, as proposed by the 19th National Congress of the CPC.

习近平强调:“高校思想政治工作关系高校培养什么样的人、如何培养人以及为谁培养人这个根本问题。”解决这个“根本问题”,也是新中国成立以后高校思想政治工作的根本目标。面对国内外形势的新变化,毛泽东创造性地提出了加强高校思想政治工作的诸多重要举措。探讨毛泽东关于高校思想政治教育的思想及其现实启示,对于新时代历史方位下高校思想政治工作为更好地服务于党的十九大提出的培养担当民族复兴大任的时代新人,具有重要的现实意义。

I. Mao Zedong’s Adjustments to Ideological and Political Education Work in Higher Education, 1949–1956

一、1949—1956年毛泽东对高校思想政治教育工作的调整

Carrying out ideological and political education work well is an important measure for the Party to lead the people to victory in revolution and construction. In April 1945, in his written political report *On Coalition Government* delivered at the Seventh National Congress of the Communist Party of China, Mao Zedong proposed the policy of “abolishing the Kuomintang’s party-oriented education and developing a national, scientific, and mass-oriented culture and education.” [1]1 The “Kuomintang’s party-oriented education” refers to the Nationalist Party’s (Kuomintang) pre-1949 policy of using the education system to propagate its own ideology. Following this guiding policy, in September 1949, the *Common Program of the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference* (hereinafter referred to as the *Common Program*) characterized New China’s culture and education as “new-democratic, that is, national, scientific, and mass-oriented.” [2]2 The *Common Program* served as the provisional constitution of the People’s Republic of China from 1949 to 1954. At this time, based on the complex situation inside and outside the Party and within higher education institutions in the early days of the founding of New China, Mao Zedong proposed and implemented important measures to rectify ideological and political education work in higher education, thereby smoothly achieving the main task of higher education institutions to “eliminate feudal, comprador, and fascist ideology,” while simultaneously providing background and practical groundwork for further strengthening ideological and political education work in higher education during the period of beginning comprehensive socialist construction.

做好思想政治教育工作是党领导人民取得革命和建设胜利的重要举措。1945年4月,毛泽东在中国共产党第七次全国代表大会上的书面政治报告《论联合政府》中,提出了“取消国民党的党化教育,发展民族的科学的大众的文化教育”的方针。根据这一指导方针,1949年9月,《中国人民政治协商会议共同纲领》(以下简称《共同纲领》)将新中国的文化教育定性为“新民主主义的,即民族的、科学的、大众的文化教育”。此时,毛泽东基于新中国成立初期党内外和高等学校内部复杂的形势,提出并实施了对高校思想政治教育工作进行整改的重要措施,从而顺利实现了高等学校“肃清封建的、买办的、法西斯主义的思想”的主要任务,同时为开始全面建设社会主义时期进一步加强高校思想政治教育工作提供了背景性和实践性铺垫。

(A) Strengthening the Party’s Leadership over Ideological and Political Education Work in Higher Education

(一)加强党对高等学校思想政治教育工作的领导

As early as the period of the New Democratic Revolution, when refuting the view that China’s cultural revolution should be led by the bourgeoisie and its political parties, Mao Zedong pointed out that after the May Fourth Movement, bourgeois cultural thought could at most, to a certain degree, “act as a member,” but “absolutely could not play a leading role.” [3]3 The May Fourth Movement (1919) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal cultural and political movement that is often seen as marking the transition from the old-democratic to the new-democratic revolution in China. As for “the position of leader, it inevitably falls on the shoulders of proletarian cultural thought”—this was “an iron fact that no one can deny.” “No cultural thought of any other class can lead” new-democratic culture; it can only be “led by communist thought.” During the War of Resistance Against Japan, Mao Zedong personally served as Chairman of the Education Committee of the “Resistance University,” directly implementing the idea of strengthening Party leadership over the school into this new-type school, “led by the Chinese Communist Party, advanced and rare in the world,” which cultivated and tempered countless “steel cadres.” [4]4 The “Resistance University” (Kangda) was a military academy established by the CPC in Yan’an during the War of Resistance Against Japan (1937–1945). After the founding of New China, Mao Zedong believed that strengthening Party leadership over higher education institutions brooked no delay. In accordance with Mao Zedong’s relevant directives, the Communist Party of China successively took over higher education institutions originally in Kuomintang-controlled areas, and simultaneously, “following the Central Committee’s policy of openly building the Party in cities, higher education institutions without Party organizations gradually established Party organizations.” [5]5 “Openly building the Party in cities” refers to the post-1949 shift from the Party’s previous underground or semi-underground existence in urban areas to a public, legal status. By the second half of 1952, all higher education institutions at the specialized college level and above with 500 or more faculty and students had established primary-level Party organizations. To further strengthen the construction of the leadership team in higher education institutions to promote the development of higher education, on the evening of May 18, 1953, Mao Zedong presided over a meeting of the Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee to discuss cultural and educational work. During his speech, Mao Zedong proposed “transferring a batch of cadres from the propaganda and education departments and the Communist Youth League to strengthen the leadership of universities.” [6]6 The Political Bureau of the CPC Central Committee is the top leadership body of the Party when the Central Committee is not in session. Consequently, a large number of Party cadres with strong political awareness and strict discipline entered higher education institutions to assume leadership roles. Mao Zedong’s proposal to “strengthen university leadership” included not only the task of taking over and transforming old-style higher education institutions but also the important issue of Marxism-Leninism “entering” higher education institutions and consolidating its guiding position in the ideological sphere. By October 1954, the main leading cadres and heads of major functional departments in higher education institutions nationwide were mostly held by members of the Communist Party of China. The deployment of these Party member leading cadres in higher education institutions laid a solid foundation for establishing a new situation of Party leadership over ideological and political education work in higher education amidst the complex circumstances of the early years of New China.

早在新民主主义革命时期,毛泽东在驳斥所谓中国的文化革命应该让资产阶级及其政党领导的观点时就指出,“五四”以后,资产阶级的文化思想至多在一定程度上“充当一个盟员”,“绝无领导作用”,“至于盟长资格,就不得不落在无产阶级文化思想的肩上”,这是“ 铁一般的事实,谁也否认不了的”,“任何别的阶级的文化思想都是不能领导”新民主主义文化的,它只能由“共产主义思想去领导”。在抗日战争时期,毛泽东亲自担任“抗大”教育委员会主席,将加强党对学校的领导思想直接贯彻到“抗大”这所由“中国共产党领导的前进的世界少有的”培养和锻炼无数“钢铁干部”的新型学校之中。新中国成立后,毛泽东认为加强党对高校的领导刻不容缓。根据毛泽东的有关指示,中国共产党相继接办了原国民党统治地区的高校,同时“根据中央在城市公开建党的方针,没有党组织的高校亦并逐步建立了党组织”。到1952年下半年,师生人数在500人以上的专科及以上层面的高校都建立了党的基层组织。为进一步加强高校领导班子队伍建设以推动高校事业发展,1953年5月18日晚上,毛泽东主持召开中共中央政治局会议,讨论文化教育工作,毛泽东在发言时提出,要“从宣教部门与青年团抽调一批干部去充实大学的领导”。为此,一大批政治性强、纪律性严的党员干部进入高校担任领导工作。毛泽东提出的“充实大学领导”,不仅包含着接管和改造旧式高校的任务,同时还内含着马列主义“进驻”高校并巩固其在意识形态领域的指导地位这一重要问题。至1954年10月,全国各高校主要领导干部和高校主要职能部门的负责人大多由中共党员担任。这些高校党员领导干部的配备,为高等学校在新中国成立初期的复杂形势中建立起党对高校思想政治教育工作领导的新局面夯实了基础。

(B) Adjusting and Revising the Content of Ideological and Political Education in Higher Education

(二)调整和修订高等学校思想政治教育内容

Starting from the establishment of the Self-Study University in Hunan, Mao Zedong designated Marxist works such as *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, *The Communist Manifesto*, and *Critique of the Gotha Programme* as required reading. [7]7 The Self-Study University in Hunan was a short-lived experimental school founded by Mao Zedong in Changsha in 1921. Mao Zedong, along with central leaders such as Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai, and Ren Bishi, frequently gave reports or lectures at schools like the “Resistance University,” the Northern Shaanxi Public School, and the Lu Xun Academy of Arts. Mao Zedong once systematically taught Marxist-Leninist theoretical courses such as dialectical materialism, *On Contradiction*, and *On Practice* to students at the “Resistance University.” After the founding of New China, Mao Zedong emphasized that higher education institutions must adhere to the guidance of Marxist theory. Due to historical reasons, in the early days of New China, most faculty and students in higher education institutions harbored varying degrees of “feudal, comprador, and fascist ideology” in their thinking. Some “could not adapt to the needs of New China’s revolution and construction… bearing deep imprints of idealism, individualism, and liberalism,” some “doubted Marxism-Leninism,” and a few “longed for the old society and were hostile to the new society.” Mao Zedong clearly recognized that this situation was very unfavorable for developing new-democratic culture and education and consolidating the newly established people’s democratic dictatorship. Therefore, during the process of presiding over the formulation of the *Common Program*, Mao Zedong and other leaders of the Party Central Committee explicitly proposed strengthening ideological and political education for university teachers and young students. Consequently, the *Common Program* clearly stipulated that, to meet the “broad needs of revolutionary work and national construction work,” “revolutionary political education” should be conducted for “young intellectuals” and “old intellectuals.” [8]8 “Old intellectuals” was a term used in early PRC discourse for intellectuals who had been educated or employed under the pre-1949 Kuomintang government. Regarding the methods and approaches for carrying out ideological and political education, in October 1950, the Ministry of Education of the Central People’s Government issued the *Directive on Strengthening the Leadership of Political and Ideological Education in Schools*, which had been reviewed by Mao Zedong. The *Directive* stated that “since liberation, various regions across the country have generally carried out the transformation and rectification of education, achieving certain results in curriculum reform and the conduct of political and ideological work.” [9]9 The Ministry of Education of the Central People’s Government was the predecessor of the current Ministry of Education of the PRC. At the same time, the *Directive* criticized phenomena in some regions, such as “adopting methods of attacking and purging original faculty and staff during the process of rectifying old education,” and demanded that relevant leading organs promptly correct these and learn from the experiences and lessons. To further strengthen ideological and political education for Party members, on March 30, 1951, Mao Zedong replied to Hu Qiaomu, requesting that the *Decision of the CPC Central Committee on Strengthening Theoretical Education (Draft)* (hereinafter referred to as the *Decision*) be issued to all localities for implementation. [10]10 Hu Qiaomu (1912–1992) was a senior CPC propaganda official and Mao Zedong’s secretary. The *Decision* proposed that “the Party is facing the complex task of building a new China, and systematic theoretical study by the entire Party is more necessary than ever before and has better conditions than ever before.” [11]11 The *Decision on Strengthening Theoretical Education (Draft)* was an internal Party document aimed at promoting the systematic study of Marxism-Leninism among Party members.

自创办湖南自修大学始,毛泽东就把《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》《共产党宣言》《哥达纲领批判》等马克思主义著作定为必读书籍。毛泽东与刘少奇、周恩来、任弼时等中央领导人经常到“抗大”、陕北公学、鲁迅艺术学院等学校作报告或讲课。毛泽东曾为“抗大”学员系统地讲授了辩证唯物论、矛盾论、实践论等马列主义理论课程。新中国成立后,毛泽东强调高等学校必须坚持马克思主义理论指导。受历史原因的影响,新中国成立之初的高校师生大多在思想上存在不同程度的“封建的、买办的、法西斯主义思想”,一部分人“不能适应新中国革命和建设的需要……带有浓厚的唯心主义、个人主义和自由主义的烙印”,一部分人“怀疑马克思列宁主义”,少数人“留念旧社会,敌视新社会”。毛泽东十分清楚地认识到这种形势对发展新民主主义文化教育、巩固新生的人民民主政权非常不利。为此,在主持制定《共同纲领》过程中,毛泽东和党中央其他领导人明确提出要加强对高校教师和青年学生的思想政治教育,因而在《共同纲领》中明确规定,为了适应“革命工作和国家建设工作的广泛需要”,要对“青年知识分子”“旧知识分子”进行“革命的政治教育”。在开展思想政治教育的方式方法上,1950年10月,中央人民政府教育部发布经毛泽东审定的《关于加强对学校政治思想教育的领导的指示》,《指示》指出“全国各地自解放以来,对教育普遍地进行了改造整顿工作,在课程的改革上、政治思想的进行上,均获得了一定的成绩”。同时《指示》对有的地区“在整顿旧教育过程中,对原有教职员,采取打击和清洗的办法”等现象提出了批评,要求有关领导机关应及时纠正,吸取经验教训。为进一步加强对党员的思想政治教育,1951年3月30日,毛泽东复信胡乔木,要求把《中共中央关于加强理论教育的决定(草案)》(以下简称《决定》下发各地执行。《决定》提出“党正面临着建设新中国的复杂任务,全党有系统地学习理论,比较过去任何时候都有更好的条件,也更加迫切需要”。

(C) Cultivating Teachers of Ideological and Political Theory Courses in Higher Education

(三)培养高等学校思想政治理论课教师

In July 1939, Mao Zedong put forward the assertion that “all work in schools is for the purpose of transforming the students’ thinking; therefore, education should be the center.” The so-called “transforming the students’ thinking” means educating students to firmly uphold communist convictions, to “always be steadfast and bravely advance in the face of difficulties,” to possess “political foresight,” to be “filled with the spirit of struggle and the spirit of sacrifice,” and to be “down-to-earth and rich in practical spirit.” To smoothly accomplish the task of “transforming the students’ thinking,” it was necessary to fully leverage the role of teachers of ideological and political theory courses. Based on Mao Zedong’s instructions, the “Decision” issued by the Central Committee of the CPC in March 1951 particularly emphasized strengthening the cultivation of ideological and political theory teachers, stipulating that “Party schools run by the Central Committee, the Central Bureaus, the Central Sub-Bureaus, and provincial Party committees should all undertake the task of training theory instructors.” On September 12 of the same year, the Propaganda Department of the CPC Central Committee issued the “Directive on Selecting Suitable Personnel to Serve as Political Course Teachers in Universities and Middle Schools,” pointing out that “university political courses are an important means of providing systematic ideological and political education to youth,” and that in many schools at the time, “there were still many people who had taught ‘Party Principles’ in Kuomintang schools serving as political course teachers,” and that “wherever such phenomena exist, they must be immediately corrected.” To further implement Mao Zedong’s proposed “task of training theory instructors,” on September 1, 1952, the CPC Central Committee issued the “Directive on Cultivating Marxist-Leninist Theory Teachers for Higher and Secondary Schools,” proposing measures to cultivate ideological and political education theory teachers in higher education from the following aspects: first, using the Marxist-Leninist research classes run by Renmin University of China and major administrative regions as vehicles to train ideological and political theory teachers for higher education; second, cultivating outstanding members among teaching assistants or senior-year Party and Youth League members to become new ideological and political course teachers; third, mobilizing leading cadres at various levels with a relatively high level of political theory to help political theory course teachers prepare lessons, or to serve as part-time teachers in schools or hold special lectures to guide university faculty and students.

1939年7月,毛泽东提出了“学校的一切工作都是为了转变学生的思想,因此,教育应当是中心”的论断。所谓“转变学生的思想”,即要教育学生坚定共产主义信念,“在困难面前总是坚定的,勇敢向前的”,具有“政治的远见”“充满着斗争精神与牺牲精神”“脚踏实地地富于实际精神”。顺利实现“转变学生的思想”的任务,必须充分发挥思想政治理论课教师的作用。根据毛泽东的批示意见,在1951年3月中共中央下发的《决定》中,特别强调了要加强对思想政治理论教师的培养,规定“中央、中央局、中央分局和省委所举办的党校都应当担负培养理论教员的任务”;同年9月12日,中共中央宣传部发布《关于挑选适当人员担任大中学校的政治课教员的指示》,指出“大学的政治课是给青年以有系统的思想政治教育的重要方式”,目前许多学校中,“还有不少在国民党学校中教《党义》的人担任政治课的教员”,“凡有这种现象的地方必须立即纠正”。为进一步落实毛泽东提出的“培养理论教员的任务”,1952年9月1日,中共中央发布《关于培养高等、中等学校马克思列宁主义理论师资的指示》,从以下几个方面提出培养高等学校思想政治教育理论师资的措施:一是以中国人民大学和各大行政区举办的马克思列宁主义研究班为载体,为高等学校培养思想政治理论课师资;二是培养助教或高年级党团员中的优秀分子成为新的思政课老师;三是动员政治理论水平较高的各级领导干部到帮助政治理论课教师备课,或到学校做兼职教师或对高校师生举办专题讲座进行辅导。

At the same time, to better build a contingent for ideological and political education with firm Marxist convictions, Mao Zedong, when reviewing the “Draft Notice of the CPC Central Committee on Organizing Propaganda of Materialist Thought and Criticizing Bourgeois Idealist Thought among Cadres and Intellectuals” on January 24, 1955, proposed that “propagating materialist thought among the masses to raise their consciousness is one of the Party’s most basic and regular tasks.” In accordance with this directive from Mao Zedong, on March 1, 1955, the CPC Central Committee issued the “Directive on Propagating Materialist Thought and Criticizing Bourgeois Idealist Thought,” proposing to “strengthen Marxist-Leninist courses in higher education” and to ensure that within “the next eight years (i.e., by the end of the Second Five-Year Plan period),” “the vast majority of cadres and intellectuals with reading ability in the cultural and educational systems” would “be able to understand the basic knowledge of Marxism-Leninism, understand the difference between materialism and idealism, and grasp the basic content of dialectical materialism and historical materialism.” The promulgation and implementation of these measures laid a good foundation for teachers of ideological and political theory courses in higher education to become guides for students to “understand Marxism and believe in Marxism.”

与此同时,为更好地打造具有坚定马克思主义信念的思想政治教育队伍,毛泽东在1955年1月24日,审阅《中共中央关于在干部和知识分子中组织宣传唯物思想、批判资产阶级唯心主义思想的演讲工作的通知稿》时,提出“向人民群众宣传唯物主义思想以提高他们的觉悟,是党的一项最基本的经常的任务”。根据毛泽东的这一指示精神,1955年3月1日中共中央发布《关于宣传唯物主义思想批判资产阶级唯心主义思想的指示》,提出要“加强高等学校中的马克思列宁主义的课程”,在“今后八年内(即到第二个五年计划期末)”使“现在……文教系统的……有阅读能力的干部和知识分子”,“做到他们的绝大部分都能够了解马克思列宁主义的基本知识,了解唯物主义与唯心主义的区别,懂得辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的基本内容”。这些举措的颁布与实施,为高校思想政治理论课教师成为学生“懂马信马”的引路人,奠定了良好的开局。

II. 1956–1966: Mao Zedong’s Strengthening of Ideological and Political Education Work in Higher Education

二、1956—1966年毛泽东对高校思想政治教育工作的加强

Entering the period of comprehensive socialist construction, as the situation at home and abroad and within and outside the Party changed, Mao Zedong’s thought on strengthening ideological and political education in higher education also underwent changes to keep pace with the times.

进入到全面建设社会主义时期,随着国内外和党内外形势的变化,毛泽东关于加强高校思想政治教育的思想亦发生着与时俱进的变化。

(A) Clarifying Responsibilities, Further Strengthening the Party’s Overall Leadership over Ideological and Political Education in Higher Education

(一)明确责任,进一步加强党对高校思想政治教育的全面领导

After the 1956 Poznan and Hungarian incidents [12]12 The 1956 Poznan protests in Poland and the Hungarian Revolution, which were suppressed by Soviet forces, leading to a crisis of confidence in socialist systems and prompting Mao to emphasize ideological vigilance in education., Mao Zedong’s reflections on ideological and political education work in higher education were further provoked. On March 7, 1957, Mao Zedong proposed at a symposium on general education work: “Provincial, prefectural, and county Party secretaries should be charged with managing ideological work.” This requirement initially put forward the idea that the Party organization secretary is the first person responsible for “ideological work.” Correspondingly, the secretaries of Party organizations in higher education institutions also had to take charge of “ideological work.” On August 13, 1958, Mao Zedong, when inspecting Tianjin University, proposed that grasping “Party committee leadership” was one of the “three things” that higher education institutions should grasp. On August 22, Mao Zedong gave the instruction “this document can be used” on the “Draft Directive of the CPC Central Committee and the State Council on Educational Work.” In accordance with the spirit of Mao Zedong’s speech during his inspection of Tianjin University and his instruction on the draft directive on educational work, on September 19, 1958, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council formally issued the “Directive on Educational Work,” explicitly requiring that “all schools should be under the leadership of the Party committee,” that “the school Party committee should assign Party members to lead the work of grades and classes, assign Party members to do ideological and political work… the Party committee secretary and members should strive to undertake the teaching and research work of political courses,” and that “the school Party committee should constantly pay attention to carrying out ideological transformation work among teachers.” To further strengthen the Party’s overall leadership over higher education, from August 23 to September 16, 1961, Mao Zedong presided over a working conference of the CPC Central Committee at Lushan in Jiangxi Province, which discussed and reviewed the “Provisional Regulations on the Work of Higher Education Institutions Directly under the Ministry of Education (Draft)” (abbreviated as the “Sixty Articles on Higher Education”). In the “Sixty Articles on Higher Education,” the CPC Central Committee once again clearly implemented Mao Zedong’s thought on the Party’s overall leadership over ideological and political work in higher education. The “Sixty Articles on Higher Education” stipulated that the university Party committee is “the leading core of the school’s work, exercising unified leadership over the school’s work”; that “Party organizations in higher education institutions must grasp ideological and political work”; and that one of the main tasks of the department’s general Party branch committee, the faculty Party branch, and the student Party branch was “to do a good job in Party building and ideological and political work.” History has proven that strengthening the Party’s overall leadership over ideological and political work in higher education during this period played a key leading and core role in cultivating the socialist successors and builders Mao Zedong described as “both red and expert.” [13]13 “Both red and expert” (又红又专) refers to Mao’s ideal of combining political reliability (redness) with professional competence (expertise) in training socialist personnel.

1956年波匈事件发生后,进一步引发了毛泽东对高校思想政治教育工作的思考。1957年3月7日,毛泽东在普通教育工作座谈会上提出:“要责成省委、地委、县委书记管思想工作。”这一要求初步提出了党组织书记为“思想工作”的第一责任人的思想。相应地,高等学校党组织的书记亦必须把“思想工作”管起来。1958年8月13日,毛泽东在视察天津大学时提出抓“党委领导”是高等学校应抓住的“三个东西”之一;8月22日毛泽东就《中共中央、国务院关于教育工作的指示草案》作出“此件可用”的批示。根据毛泽东在视察天津大学时的讲话精神以及关于教育工作的指示草案的批示,1958年9月19日,中共中央、国务院正式发布《关于教育工作的指示》,明确要求“一切学校,应该受党委的领导”,“学校党委,应当配备党员去领导年级和班的工作、配备党员去做思想政治工作……党委书记和委员力求担任政治课的教学、研究工作”,“学校党委应当在教师中经常注意进行思想改造的工作”。为进一步加强党对高等教育事业的全面领导,1961年8月23日至9月16日,毛泽东在江西庐山主持召开中共中央工作会议,讨论并审议通过了《教育部直属高等学校暂行工作条例(草案)》(简称《高教六十条》)。在《高教六十条》)中,中共中央再次旗帜鲜明地贯彻了毛泽东关于党对高校思想政治工作全面领导的思想。《高教六十条》规定,高校党委是“是学校工作的领导核心,对学校工作实行统一领导”;“高校中的党组织,一定要抓思想政治工作”;系的党总支委员会、教职工党支部、学生中党支部的主要任务之一是“做好党的建设和思想政治工作”。历史证明,该时期加强党对高校思想政治工作的全面领导,为培养毛泽东提出的“又红又专”的社会主义接班人和建设者起到了关键的领导核心作用。

(B) “Three Educations and Two Possessions,” Enriching and Developing Ideological and Political Theory Courses in Higher Education

(二)“三育两有”,丰富和发展高校思想政治理论课程

In February 1957, Mao Zedong pointed out in “On the Correct Handling of Contradictions among the People” that “in the recent period,” “among intellectuals and young students,” “some deviations have appeared,” namely that their “ideological and political work has weakened.” Mao Zedong proposed that whether young students or intellectuals, “in addition to studying their specialties,” they also “need to study Marxism and study current affairs and politics”; that “our educational policy” is to “enable those who receive education to develop in moral, intellectual, and physical education and other aspects, becoming educated workers with socialist consciousness” (abbreviated as the “Three Educations and Two Possessions” [14]14 “Three Educations and Two Possessions” (三育两有) is a shorthand for Mao’s educational policy: education in moral, intellectual, and physical development, producing educated workers with socialist consciousness.).

1957年2月,毛泽东在《关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》中指出,“最近一个时期”,“在知识分子和青年学生中间”“出现了一些偏向”,即对他们的“思想政治工作减弱了”。毛泽东提出无论是青年学生还是知识分子,“除了学习专业之外”,还“需要学习马克思主义,学习时事政治”;“我们的教育方针”是“使受教育者在德育、智育、体育等几方面都得到发展,成为有社会主义觉悟的有文化的劳动者”(简称“三育两有”)。

First, “political theory courses” centered on “socialist education.” In the “Regulations on Political Theory Courses in Higher Education Institutions (Trial Plan)” issued by the Ministry of Higher Education in September 1956, the central authorities adjusted the curriculum for political theory courses in higher education, including political economy, the history of the Chinese revolution, the foundations of Marxism-Leninism, and dialectical materialism and historical materialism. As reviewed and finalized by Mao Zedong, in November 1957 the Central Committee of the CPC approved the “Report of the Central Propaganda Department on Establishing a Socialist Education Course for the Central Authorities,” agreeing to the plan for establishing socialist education courses in higher education institutions; in December of the same year, the Ministry of Higher Education and the Ministry of Education, based on Mao Zedong’s educational policy of “three educations and two possessions” [15]15 “三育两有” (sān yù liǎng yǒu) refers to Mao Zedong’s educational policy emphasizing moral, intellectual, and physical education, and the cultivation of both socialist consciousness and culture., issued the “Directive on Offering Socialist Education Courses in Higher Education Institutions Nationwide,” stipulating that socialist education courses be universally offered in higher education institutions nationwide, with all students required to participate, the study period tentatively set at one year, and the content of study to be Mao Zedong’s speech on the correct handling of contradictions among the people, along with Marxist-Leninist works and Party documents; previously offered political theory courses were to be discontinued; at the same time, each institution should, in light of the political and ideological issues exposed during the “great blooming and contending” [16]16 “大鸣大放” (dà míng dà fàng), or “great blooming and contending,” was a campaign in 1957 encouraging open criticism of the Party and government, which later transitioned into the anti-rightist struggle. and the anti-rightist struggle [17]17 The anti-rightist struggle (反右派斗争) was a political campaign from 1957 to 1959 targeting intellectuals and Party members accused of being “rightists” who opposed the Party line., formulate teaching plans suited to its actual circumstances, “so that students can strive to remold their thinking and raise their socialist consciousness.” After 1959, the teaching order in higher education institutions gradually recovered, ending the situation where ideological and political theory education in higher education offered only a single course, and four courses—Party history, socialism, political economy, and philosophy—were re-established. However, with changes in the domestic and international situation, various higher education institutions successively launched a study and debate on “opposing rightist opportunism and defending the general line” [18]18 The “general line” (总路线) refers to the General Line for Socialist Construction adopted in 1958, emphasizing rapid industrialization and collectivization., extensively discussing class struggle in the socialist period, and especially after the gradual deterioration of Sino-Soviet relations, the content of “opposing revisionism and preventing revisionism” was further highlighted in the teaching of political theory courses in higher education.

第一,以“社会主义教育”为中心内容的“政治理论课”。在高等教育部于1956年9月下发的《关于高等学校政治理论课程的规定(试行方案)》中,中央调整了高校政治经济学、中国革命史、马列主义基础和辩证唯物主义与历史唯物主义等政治理论课程的开设方案。经毛泽东审定,1957年11月,中共中央对《中央宣传部关于设立社会主义教育课程向中央的报告》进行批复,同意在高等学校设立社会主义教育课程的方案;同年12月,高等教育部、教育部根据毛泽东提出的“三育两有”教育方针发出了《关于在全国高等学校开设社会主义教育课程的指示》,规定在全国高校普开社会主义教育课程,全体学生均需参加,学习时间暂定为一年,学习内容为毛泽东关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的讲话及马列著作和党的文件;原先开设的政治理论课停止开设;同时各校应结合本校在“大鸣大放”和反右派斗争中暴露的政治思想问题,制定切合本校实际的教学计划,“使学生能够努力改造思想,提高社会主义觉悟”。1959年以后,高校的教学秩序逐步恢复,结束了高校思想政治理论教育只开一门课程的局面,重新开设了中共党史、社会主义、政治经济学和哲学四门课程。但随着国内外形势的变化,各高校相继开展了一场“反对右倾机会主义、保卫总路线”的学习和辩论,大讲社会主义时期的阶级斗争,尤其是中苏关系的逐步恶化后,高校政治理论课教学中更加突出了“反修防修”的内容。

Second, “common political theory courses” with “opposing revisionism and preventing revisionism” as the main content. In 1957, Mao Zedong successively proposed at the Eleventh (Enlarged) Session of the Supreme State Conference and the National Conference on Propaganda Work of the CPC: “An important task on our ideological front at present is to launch a critique of revisionism.” Clearly, with changes in the domestic and international situation, Mao Zedong at this time gradually emphasized the issue of opposing revisionism. According to Mao Zedong’s relevant requirements on “opposing revisionism and preventing revisionism,” in April 1961, the Central Propaganda Department of the CPC and the Ministry of Education issued the “Opinions on Improving the Teaching of Common Political Theory Courses in Higher Education Institutions” (hereinafter referred to as the “Opinions”). According to the requirements of the “Opinions,” the courses were divided into two categories: the basic theory of Marxism-Leninism and current affairs policy reports and discussions. Among them, current affairs policy reports and discussions were compulsory courses for all majors and all grades; the offering of the basic theory of Marxism-Leninism varied according to different plans stipulated for different majors, types of institutions, and levels. The “Opinions” clearly pointed out that the teaching task of common political theory courses in higher education was to provide students with Marxist-Leninist education, to educate them on the Party’s line, principles, and policies; and to guide students to continuously struggle against revisionism and all other reactionary ideologies. To further strengthen the awareness of “opposing revisionism and preventing revisionism” among faculty and students in higher education, on September 10, 1964, the Central Propaganda Department of the CPC, the Party Group of the Ministry of Higher Education of the CPC, and the Interim Party Group of the Ministry of Education of the CPC jointly formulated the “Opinions on Improving Political Theory Courses in Higher Education Institutions and Secondary Schools.” The “Opinions” pointed out that the fundamental task of political theory courses in higher education was to “cultivate strong revolutionary successors” and “oppose revisionism, and compete with the bourgeoisie for the younger generation.” The “Opinions” stipulated that from then on, common political theory courses in higher education, in addition to continuing to offer courses on the situation and tasks, should include courses on political economy, philosophy, and the history of the CPC. Among them, the course on the situation and tasks mainly involved reading and explaining articles opposing modern revisionism. The teaching objective of the “socialist part” of the political economy course was “to enable students to understand the necessity of the struggle against revisionism and to prevent revisionism.”

第二, 以“反修防修”为主要内容的“共同政治理论课”。1957年,毛泽东先后在最高国务会议第十一次(扩大)会议、中国共产党全国宣传工作会议上提出:“我们现在思想战线上的一个重要任务,就是要开展对于修正主义的批判。”显然,随着国内外形势的变化,毛泽东此时逐渐强调反对修正主义的问题。根据毛泽东“反修防修”的有关要求,1961年4月,中共中央宣传部和教育部发布了关于《改进高等学校共同政治理论课程教学的意见》(以下简称《意见》)。根据《意见》要求,课程分为马克思列宁主义基础理论和时事政策报告和讨论两大类。其中时事政策报告和讨论为各专业、各年级的必修课;马克思列宁主义基础理论的开设因专业、学校类别和层次的不同而规定的不同的方案。《意见》明确指出,高校共同政治理论课的教学任务是向学生进行马列主义教育,进行党的路线、方针、政策教育;引导学生不断地同修正主义及其他一切反动思想进行斗争。为进一步强化高校师生“反修防修”的意识,1964年9月10日,中共中央宣传部、中共高等教育部党组和中共教育部临时党组联合制定了《关于改进高等学校、中等学校政治理论课的意见》。《意见》指出:高校政治理论课的根本任务是“培养坚强的革命接班人”,“反对修正主义,同资产阶级争夺青年一代”。《意见》规定,今后高等学校共同政治理论课,除继续开设形势与任务课外,设置政治经济学、哲学、中共党史等课程。其中形势与任务课程主要是应阅读和讲解反对现代修正主义文章。政治经济学课的“社会主义部分”的教学目的是“使学生懂得反对修正主义、防止修正主义斗争的必要性”。

(3) “The Two Musts”: Receiving ideological and political education in social movements and productive labor

(三)“两必须”,在社会运动和生产劳动中接受思想政治教育

In early 1958, Mao Zedong put forward the propositions and tasks that “education must serve proletarian politics and must be combined with productive labor” (hereinafter referred to as “the Two Musts”) and that “the working people should be intellectualized, and the intellectuals should be laborized.” Based on this guiding thought of Mao Zedong, in September 1958, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council stipulated in the “Directive on Educational Work” the “Party’s educational work policy,” namely that education “serves proletarian politics” and is “combined with productive labor.”

1958年初,毛泽东提出了“教育必须为无产阶级政治服务,必须与生产劳动相结合”(以下简称“两必须”)和“劳动人民要知识化,知识分子要劳动化”的主张和任务。基于毛泽东的这一指导思想,1958年9月,中共中央、国务院在《关于教育工作的指示》中规定“党的教育工作方针”,即教育“为无产阶级的政治服务”“与生产劳动结合”。

First, “education must serve proletarian politics.” Education serving proletarian politics mainly includes the following aspects: First, education must serve the struggle between the two classes and the two roads [19]19 “Two classes and two roads” (两个阶级、两条道路) refers to the struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, and between the socialist and capitalist paths, a key concept in Maoist class analysis. domestically. Specifically, this refers to the anti-rightist struggle, the anti-“rightist” struggle, the socialist education movement, etc., which involve educating students on class struggle, raising the confidence of young students in firmly taking the socialist road, and preventing the restoration of the bourgeoisie and capitalism; second, education must serve the struggle against revisionism both domestically and internationally. Through the struggle against Soviet revisionism, it aims to prevent “peaceful evolution” [20]20 “Peaceful evolution” (和平演变) is a term used by the CPC to describe the strategy of Western powers to subvert socialist systems through non-military means, such as ideological infiltration. domestically; third, education must serve China’s transition from socialism to communism. It is necessary to vigorously cultivate the communist spirit, so that the younger generation becomes steadfast Marxists. Under the guidance of education serving proletarian politics, faculty and students in higher education generally participated in social movements, receiving ideological and political education within these social movements.

第一,“教育必须为无产阶级政治服务”。教育为无产阶级政治服务,主要包括以下几方面的内容:一是教育要为国内两个阶级、两条道路的斗争服务。具体指反右派斗争、反“右倾”斗争、社会主义教育运动等,要对学生进行阶级斗争的教育,提高青年学生坚定走社会主义道路的信心,防止资产阶级和资本主义复辟;二是教育要为国际国内反对修正主义的斗争服务。通过反对苏联修正主义的斗争,防止国内出现“和平演变”;三是教育要为中国由社会主义过渡到共产主义服务。要大力培养共产主义精神,使青年一代成为坚定的马克思主义者。在教育要为无产阶级政治服务的指导下,高校师生普遍参与社会运动,在社会运动中接受思想政治教育。

Taking the socialist education movement as an example. Entering the period of comprehensively building socialism, Mao Zedong increasingly emphasized the socialist education movement. On November 16, 1959, Mao Zedong, in forwarding the minutes of the East China Coordination Zone Conference, wrote a letter to Zhou Enlai and Peng Zhen, proposing “to conduct a broad and in-depth socialist education in the countryside this winter”; on December 23 of the same year, in accordance with Mao Zedong’s relevant instructions, the Central Committee of the CPC forwarded these minutes to the coordination zone committees and the Party committees of provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions. On November 14, 1961, Mao Zedong reviewed the draft directive of the Central Committee of the CPC on conducting socialist education in the countryside and the accompanying letter, and made the instruction “to be handled by Comrade Shangkun” [21]21 “Comrade Shangkun” refers to Yang Shangkun (杨尚昆), then a senior Party official responsible for central document handling.. On February 15, 1963, Mao Zedong made an instruction on the report submitted by the CPC Hunan Provincial Committee on the situation of the socialist movement, stating that “the Hunan report is very good” and “the experience of Hebei is also worth introducing; please consider whether the comrades of the Hebei Provincial Committee can write a brief report to be printed for the comrades at the meeting to read”; on May 20 of the same year, the Central Committee of the CPC issued the reports of the Hunan Provincial Committee and the Hebei Provincial Committee on the situation of the socialist education movement, along with Mao Zedong’s comments, as Appendix I to the “Decision of the Central Committee of the CPC on Several Issues in Current Rural Work (Draft)” to Party organizations at all levels. At this point, the socialist education movement was carried out vigorously across China.

以社会主义教育运动为例。进入开始全面建设社会主义时期,毛泽东对社会主义教育运动日益重视。1959年11月16日,毛泽东为转发华东协作区会议纪要致信周恩来、彭真,提出,“今冬在农村进行一次广泛深入的社会主义教育”;同年12月23日按照毛泽东的有关指示精神,中共中央将这个会议纪要转发各协作区委员会、各省市自治区党委。1961年11月14日,毛泽东审阅中共中央关于在农村进行社会主义教育的指示稿和附信,并作出“交尚昆同志办”的批示。1963年2月15日,毛泽东对中共湖南省委报送的关于社会主义运动情况的报告作出批示,认为“湖南报告很好”,“河北的经验也很值得介绍,请河北省委同志考虑一下,是否可以写一个不长的报告,印给会议同志们看”;同年5月20日,中共中央把湖南省委、河北省委关于社会主义教育运动情况的报告和毛泽东的批语,作为《中共中央关于目前农村工作中若干问题的决定(草案)》的附件一下发各级党组织。至此,社会主义教育运动在中国如火如荼地开展起来。

In accordance with Mao Zedong’s relevant directives and deployments on launching the socialist education movement, on September 11, 1964, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council issued the “Notice on Organizing Teachers and Students of the Humanities and Social Sciences in Higher Education Institutions to Participate in the Socialist Education Movement,” requiring that teachers and students in the humanities and social sciences receive education and training in actual struggle to enhance their socialist consciousness. The Notice pointed out: “Many bourgeois experts are contending with us for young students. Some students do not listen to the Party or follow the Party, but instead follow bourgeois experts… Moreover, because graduates of the humanities and social sciences will in the future control the superstructure of the state, this creates the danger of ‘peaceful evolution’ [22]22 “Peaceful evolution” (和平演变) refers to the strategy, attributed to the United States and other Western powers, of subverting a socialist state from within through ideological, cultural, and economic means rather than military force, a concept frequently invoked in Chinese political discourse during the Cold War and after. in our country.” Therefore, it was imperative to “enable teachers and students in the humanities and social sciences, through productive labor and class struggle, … to be gradually tempered into revolutionary fighters of the proletariat.” At the same time, in February 1965, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council issued a notice requiring that teachers and students in science and engineering at higher education institutions also participate in the socialist education movement in organized batches. On July 25 of the same year, the Central Committee of the CPC issued another “Notice on Organizing Cadres from Higher Education Institutions, Scientific Research Institutions, and Cultural Units to Participate in the Rural Socialist Education Movement,” stating that “cadres should be organized without delay to actively throw themselves into the rural socialist education movement.” By the end of 1965, approximately 395 higher education institutions nationwide had sent over 220,000 teachers and students to participate in the socialist education movement.

根据毛泽东关于开展社会主义教育运动的有关指示和部署,1964年9月11日,中共中央、国务院发出了《关于组织高等学校文科师生参加社会主义教育运动的通知》,要求高校文科师生要在实际斗争中接受教育和锻炼,提高社会主义觉悟。《通知》指出:“不少资产阶级专家,正在同我们争夺青年学生。有些学生不是听党的话、不跟着党走,而是跟着资产阶级专家跑……而且由于文科毕业生将来会掌握国家的上层建筑,就使我国有发生‘和平演变’的危险”,因此务必要“使文科师生通过生产劳动和阶级斗争,……逐步锻炼成无产阶级的革命战士”。同时1965年2月,中共中央、国务院发出通知要求高等学校理工科师生也要分期分批组织地参加社会主义教育运动;同年7月25日,中共中央又发出了《关于组织高等院校、科学研究和文化单位的干部参加农村社会主义教育运动的通知》,要求“应当不失时机地组织干部,积极投入农村社会主义教育运动中去”。到1965年底,全国约有395所高等学校的师生22万余人参加社会主义教育运动。

Second, “education must be combined with productive labor.” In January 1958, Mao Zedong, in his “Sixty Articles on Work Methods (Draft),” put forward requirements for combining education with productive labor for all “secondary technical schools and skilled workers’ schools,” “higher industrial schools,” and “agricultural schools.” Mao Zedong proposed that “all higher industrial schools” with “laboratories and affiliated factories capable of production” “should engage in productive labor as much as possible”; “all primary and secondary schools and higher education institutions with land should establish affiliated farms; schools without land but located near suburban areas may participate in labor at agricultural cooperatives”; “agricultural schools” should not only “carry out production on their own farms” but may also “send teachers to reside in cooperatives” and “may also sign labor participation contracts with local agricultural cooperatives,” thereby “integrating theory with practice.” To implement Mao Zedong’s thought that “education must be combined with productive labor,” in September 1958, the “Directive on Education Work” jointly issued by the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council stipulated that “every student” must “participate in labor for a certain period of time,” and that “productive labor” was a formal course in “all schools.” Thereafter, higher education institutions earnestly implemented the central authorities’ requirements, implementing the combination of education with productive labor, so that teachers and students in higher education institutions received ideological and political education through productive labor. In September 1961, the “Sixty Articles on Higher Education” [23]23 The “Sixty Articles on Higher Education” (高教六十条) is the informal name for the “Provisional Regulations on the Work of Higher Education Institutions Directly under the Ministry of Education (Draft),” issued in 1961 as part of a broader effort to regulate and stabilize higher education after the Great Leap Forward. was promulgated, and the provisions concerning the combination of “productive labor” with ideological and political work became an extremely important component of this regulation. The “Sixty Articles on Higher Education” emphasized: The ideological and political work of higher education institutions should be reflected in all aspects of teaching, productive labor, and the daily life of the masses; during productive labor, the Party committees of higher education institutions must strengthen organizational leadership, do a good job of ideological education, and establish necessary assessment systems.

第二,“教育必须与生产劳动相结合”。1958年1月,毛泽东在《工作方法六十条(草案)》中对一切“中等技术学校和技工学校”“高等工业学校”和“农业学校”提出了与生产劳动相结合的要求。毛泽东提出,“一切高等工业学校”可以进行生产的“实验室和附属工厂”,“都应当尽可能地进行劳动生产”;“一切有土地的大中小学,应当设立附属农场;没有土地而临近郊区的学校,可以到农业合作社参加劳动”;“农业学校”不仅应“在自己的农场进行生产”,还可以“派教师住到合作社去”,“还可以同当地的农业合作社订立参加劳动合同”,从而“进行理论和实际相结合”。为贯彻毛泽东关于“教育必须与生产劳动相结合”思想,1958年9月,在中共中央和国务院联合发布的《关于教育工作的指示》中规定,“每个学生”必须“参加一定时间的劳动”,“生产劳动”是“一切学校”的正式课程。此后各高等学校认真贯彻中央的要求,实行教育与生产劳动相结合,使高校师生在生产劳动中接受思想政治教育。1961年9月,《高教六十条》颁布,有关“生产劳动”与思想政治工作相结合的规定成为该条例中极其重要的组成部分。《高教六十条》强调:高校思想政治工作要体现在教学、生产劳动和群众生活各方面,要在生产劳动中加强对青年学生进行艰苦奋斗的建设社会主义的教育;在生产劳动中,高校党委必须加强组织领导,做好思想教育工作,建立必要的考核制度。

III. Contemporary Implications of Mao Zedong’s Thought on Ideological and Political Education in Higher Education Institutions (1949–1966)

三、1949—1966年毛泽东关于高校思想政治教育思想的现实启示

(I) Adhere to the Comprehensive Leadership of the Party and Form a Scientific and Rational Organizational Leadership Structure

(一)坚持党的全面领导,形成科学合理的组织领导格局

From 1949 to 1966, under the Party’s comprehensive leadership over ideological and political work in higher education institutions, the Party’s educational policy was effectively implemented in higher education institutions, cultivating a large number of intellectuals who were “both red and expert” [24]24 “Both red and expert” (又红又专) is a Mao-era slogan demanding that intellectuals and cadres be both politically reliable (“red,” i.e., loyal to the Party and socialism) and professionally competent (“expert”).. They consciously took the path of integrating with the worker-peasant masses and production practice, making indelible contributions to the cause of socialist construction. Although certain deviations and errors occurred in the work during this period, causing adverse effects on the thinking and psychology of many teachers and students in higher education institutions, the vast majority of them remained unswervingly linked to the fate of the Party and the people, throwing themselves into the great cause of socialist construction.

1949—1966年,在党对高等学校思想政治工作的全面领导下,党的教育方针在高校得到了有效的贯彻,培养了一大批“又红又专”的知识分子,他们自觉地走上与工农群众和生产实践相结合的道路,为社会主义建设事业做出了不可磨灭的贡献。尽管其间在工作中发生过某些偏差和失误,对不少高校师生的思想和心理造成了不良影响,但他们当中的绝大多数人仍然矢志不渝地把自己同党和人民的命运紧紧地联系在一起,投入到伟大的社会主义建设事业之中。

In the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics, strengthening and improving ideological and political education in higher education institutions should always adhere to and improve the Party’s leadership. The Party secretary of a higher education institution should strictly fulfill the responsibilities of the first person responsible for ideological and political work in the institution, while other leading members of the institution’s Party committee should, in conjunction with their business divisions, do a good job of ideological and political work and strictly fulfill the “dual responsibilities for one post” [25]25 “Dual responsibilities for one post” (一岗双责) is a Party governance principle requiring that leading cadres bear responsibility for both their specific business duties and for Party building and ideological work within their purview.. To form an organizational leadership structure for ideological and political education in higher education institutions characterized by “unified leadership of the Party committee,” “joint management by the Party and administration,” “organizational coordination by departments,” and “active participation by all parties,” in February 2017, the Central Committee of the CPC and the State Council issued the “Opinions on Strengthening and Improving Ideological and Political Work in Higher Education Institutions under the New Circumstances,” emphasizing the need to “improve the system for local Party committees to manage ideological and political work in higher education institutions” and “uphold and improve systems such as the Party committee’s regular research and leading cadres’ contact with higher education institutions.” This is the guiding principle for strengthening the Party’s leadership over ideological and political education in higher education institutions in the New Era and must be unwaveringly upheld.

在中国特色社会主义新时代,加强和改进高校思想政治教育工作应始终坚持和改善党的领导。高校党委书记应严格履行高校思想政治工作第一责任人的职责,高校党委其他领导成员结合业务分工抓好思想政治工作,严格履行“一岗双责”。为形成“党委统一领导”“党政齐抓共管”“部门组织协调”“各方积极参与”的高校思想政治教育工作组织领导格局,2017年2月,中共中央、国务院下发的《关于加强和改进新形势下高校思想政治工作的意见》,强调要“健全地方党委抓高校思想政治工作制度”,“坚持和完善党委定期研究、领导干部联系高校等制度”。这是新时代加强党对高校思想政治教育工作领导的指导方针,必须毫不动摇地坚持。

(II) Adhere to the Correct Political Direction and Implement the Fundamental Task of Cultivating New Talents for the Era

(二)坚持正确的政治方向,落实培养时代新人的根本任务

Strengthening ideological and political education in higher education institutions first requires adhering to the correct political direction to avoid taking the wrong path or detours in ideological and political education. The correctness of Mao Zedong’s “two musts” [26]26 “Two musts” (两必须) refers to Mao Zedong’s two fundamental requirements for education: that education must serve proletarian politics, and that education must be combined with productive labor. educational policy is beyond doubt. However, after the expansion of the anti-rightist struggle [27]27 The anti-rightist struggle (反右派斗争) was a political campaign launched by the CPC in 1957 to suppress intellectuals and Party members who had criticized the Party during the Hundred Flowers Campaign; it resulted in the labeling of hundreds of thousands of people as “rightists” and their persecution., the rhetoric that class contradictions and class struggle were becoming increasingly acute was continuously raised, causing education to evolve into serving class struggle. The “left” deviations that emerged on the higher education front led people to increasingly value “politics” while neglecting the study of cultural courses. At the same time, from the perspective of practice at the time, the emphasis on combining education with labor one-sidedly stressed increasing the time teachers and students spent participating in labor, to the point that in certain periods the time teachers and students spent on labor greatly exceeded the time they spent studying at school. This simplified the combination of education with productive labor into simply having teachers and students engage in more physical labor, thereby weakening necessary classroom education and reducing the quality of school education.

加强高校思想政治教育工作,首先就要坚持正确的政治方向,避免思想政治教育工作走错路、走弯路。毛泽东关于教育“两必须”的方针,其中的正确性不容置疑。但是,自反右派斗争扩大化以后,阶级矛盾和阶级斗争日益尖锐的论调不断提高,使得教育演变为阶级斗争服务。高校教育战线上出现的“左”的偏差,使人们日益重视“政治”而轻视文化课的学习。同时,从当时实践上来看,强调教育与劳动相结合,片面地强调增加学校师生参加劳动的时间,甚至在某段时期师生参加劳动的时间大大超过了在校学习的时间,使教育与生产劳动相结合简单化为就是师生多参加一点体力劳动,以致削弱了必要的课堂教育,降低了学校教育的质量。

In December 2016, at the National Conference on Ideological and Political Work in Higher Education Institutions, Xi Jinping proposed that higher education should “serve the people, serve the governance of the country by the Communist Party of China, serve the consolidation and development of the socialist system with Chinese characteristics, and serve reform and opening up and socialist modernization” (abbreviated as the “four services” policy). The “four services” policy is the fundamental direction for cultivating talent in higher education in the New Era. In January 2019, the Central Committee of the CPC issued the “Opinions on Strengthening the Party’s Political Construction,” further providing programmatic guidance for higher education institutions to adhere to the correct political direction. At the ideological level, this means unremittingly carrying out Marxist theoretical education for teachers and students in higher education institutions; it means unremittingly guiding teachers and students in higher education institutions to practice core socialist values. At the level of educational goals, adhering to the correct political direction means upholding the “four services” policy and implementing the fundamental task of cultivating new talents for the era.

2016年12月,习近平在全国高校思想政治教育工作会议上提出,高等教育要“为人民服务,为中国共产党治国理政服务,为巩固和发展中国特色社会主义制度服务,为改革开放和社会主义现代化建设服务”(简称“四个服务”方针)。“四个服务”方针是新时期高等教育人才培养的根本方向。2019年1月,中共中央发布《关于加强党的政治建设的意见》,进一步为高等学校坚持正确的政治方向提供了纲领性指导。在意识形态层面,就是要坚持不懈地抓好对高校师生的马克思主义理论教育;就是要坚持不懈地引导高校师生践行社会主义核心价值观;在教育目标层面,坚持正确的政治方向,就是要坚持“四个服务”方针,落实培养时代新人的根本任务。

(III) Strengthen the Value Guidance of Ideals and Beliefs in “Ideological and Political Courses” and “Curriculum-Based Ideological and Political Education”

(三)在“思政课程”和“课程思政”中强化理想信念的价值引领

The ideological and political theory curriculum in higher education institutions is an important front for conducting ideological and political education in higher education institutions. Under the guidance of Mao Zedong’s thought on strengthening ideological and political education in higher education institutions, the ideological and political theory curriculum in higher education institutions, on the basis of the “1951 Plan,” successively underwent two changes: the “1956 Plan” and the “1961 Plan.” [28]28 The “1951 Plan,” “1956 Plan,” and “1961 Plan” refer to successive national curriculum schemes for ideological and political theory courses in Chinese higher education institutions, issued by the Ministry of Education in those years, which adjusted course content and structure in response to political and social changes. Overall, these two plans kept pace with changes in the domestic and international situation, adapted to the social and political movements of the time, raised the ideological and political consciousness of the vast number of teachers and students in higher education institutions and their enthusiasm for participating in socialist construction, and consolidated the Party’s ideological, political, and organizational leadership over higher education institutions. At present, the ideological and political education curriculum in China’s higher education institutions is offered on the basis of the “Implementation Plan for the Reform and Innovation of the Ideological and Political Theory Curriculum in Schools in the New Era,” jointly issued by the Propaganda Department of the CPC Central Committee and the Ministry of Education on December 18, 2020. In the New Era, we should further uphold and improve the ideological and political education curriculum, innovate teaching methods, enhance the appeal, persuasiveness, and impact of teaching, and promote the integration of Xi Jinping Thought on Socialism with Chinese Characteristics for a New Era into textbooks, into classrooms, and into students’ minds.

高校思想政治理论课程是开展高校思想政治教育的重要阵地。在毛泽东关于加强高校思想政治教育思想的指导下,高校思想政治理论课程在“1951年方案”的基础上,先后经历了“1956年方案”和“1961年方案”两次变更。总的来说,这两个方案紧随国内外形势的变化,适应当时的社会政治运动,提高了高校广大师生的思想政治觉悟和参与社会主义建设的热情,巩固了党对高校的思想政治和组织领导。当前,我国高校思想政治教育课程是在2020年12月18日中共中央宣传部、教育部联合印发的《新时代学校思想政治理论课改革创新实施方案》规定的基础上开设的。新时代,我们应进一步坚持和改进思想政治教育课程,创新教学方法,增强教学的吸引力、说服力、感染力,推动习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想进教材、进课堂和进头脑。

At the same time, we should also strengthen the value guidance of “curriculum-based ideological and political education,” [29]29 “Curriculum-based ideological and political education” (课程思政) is a policy approach that integrates ideological and political education elements into all non-specialized courses, as distinct from dedicated ideological and political theory courses. integrate ideal and belief education into specialized courses, guide teachers and students to deeply comprehend the strategic thinking of the Party Central Committee with Comrade Xi Jinping at its core in governing the country, promote fine traditional Chinese culture and revolutionary culture, deepen the study and education of Party history, national history, and military history, strengthen the “Four Confidences” of the new generation of the era, and embody “curriculum-based ideological and political education” throughout the entire process of teaching and educating people.

与此同时,还应强化“课程思政”的价值引领,把理想信念教育融入到专业课程之中,引导师生深刻领会以习近平同志为核心的党中央治国理政的战略思想,弘扬中华优秀传统文化和革命文化,深化对党史、国史、军史的教育学习,坚定时代新人的“四个自信”,把“课程思政”体现到教书育人全过程。

(Author’s bio: Luo Xiong, PhD, Associate Professor at Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University)

（作者简介：罗雄,博士,广东技术师范大学副教授）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心