A Review of Research on the Generation Basis, Theoretical Connotation, and Practical Achievements of Mao Zedong’s Economic Thought

Mao Zedong’s economic thought is an important component of Mao Zedong Thought. The historic achievements of China’s economic transformation and development in the 20th century, and their far-reaching influence, are inseparable from the guidance of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. It should be recognized that the value of Mao Zedong’s economic thought is fully comparable to his political, military, and philosophical thought. Since the 1980s, the academic community has successively published monographs on Mao Zedong’s economic thought by representative scholars such as Xiao Gongda, Ni Daqi, Guo Shiping, Guo Jianning, Gu Longsheng, Chen Yishou, Qiao Zongshou, Liu Guangjie, Chen Xiangge, Zhao Wenxu, and Wang Jinlei, forming hundreds of thematic papers with prominent themes and rich content. These works explore from different angles the manifestations, characteristics, status, and role of Mao Zedong’s economic thought in the process of China’s revolution and construction. This article, following the logical dimensions of the generation basis, theoretical connotation, and practical achievements of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, examines the representative viewpoints of existing research results. On the one hand, it explains the meaning of Mao Zedong’s economic thought; on the other hand, it reviews the state of academic research, attempting to put forward relevant viewpoints and propositions for further in-depth study. This article is written to commemorate the 130th anniversary of Mao Zedong’s birth.

毛泽东经济思想是毛泽东思想体系的重要组成部分。20世纪中国经济变革与发展所取得的历史性成就及其所产生的深远影响，与毛泽东经济思想的指导分不开。应当看到，毛泽东经济思想的价值完全能够毛泽东他的政治、军事、哲学等思想相媲美。自20世纪80年代起，学界陆续出版了以肖功达、倪大奇、国世平、郭建宁、顾龙生、陈益寿、乔宗寿、刘光杰、陈湘舸、赵文绪、王金磊等为代表学者的毛泽东经济思想研究专著，形成了成千盈百主题突出、内容丰富的专题论文。这些论著从不同角度探究了毛泽东经济思想在中国革命与建设进程中的表现、特点、地位和作用。本文按照毛泽东经济思想的生成基础、理论内涵以及实践成就的逻辑维度，揆诸既有研究成果的代表性观点，一方面阐释毛泽东经济思想意涵，另一方面评述学界研究状况，为进一步开展深入研究尝试提出相关观点主张。谨以此文纪念毛泽东诞辰130周年。

I. The Generation Basis of Mao Zedong’s Economic Thought

一、毛泽东经济思想的生成基础

No thought arises without a source of water or a root in the soil. The formation, development, and maturation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought also had specific social and historical conditions. Academic research mainly attributes it to three major theoretical and practical foundations: the basic theories of Marxism, the practice of revolution and construction along with the socio-economic investigation and research running through it, and the history of China’s socio-economic development and the economic thought of advanced Chinese figures. These three are closely linked, intermingled and permeated with each other, forming an indivisible and complete organic whole, serving as the important theoretical support and practical basis for the generation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought.

任何思想的产生都非无源之水、无本之木。毛泽东经济思想的形成、发展和成熟亦有特定的社会历史条件。学界研究主要将其归结为三大理论与实践基础，即马克思主义基本理论、革命和建设实践及贯穿其中的社会经济调查研究、中国社会经济发展的历史与先进国人的经济思想。这三者紧密联结，相互交融渗透，是一个不可分割的、完整的有机整体，成为毛泽东经济思想生成的重要理论支撑和现实依据。

First, Marxist theory is the background color of Mao Zedong’s economic thought and also Mao Zedong’s firm theoretical belief. The reason lies in: Marxism is the world outlook of the proletariat, a doctrine concerning the cause of the proletariat’s self-liberation, which is completely consistent with the path of saving the country and the people that Mao Zedong’s economic thought sought.

第一，马克思主义理论是毛泽东经济思想的底色，也是毛泽东坚定的理论信仰。其根由在于：马克思主义是无产阶级世界观，是关于无产阶级谋取自身解放事业的学说，与毛泽东经济思想试图寻求的救国救民之道完全一致。

Regarding Marxist philosophy, commentators generally believe that when Mao Zedong studied China’s economic problems, formulated economic policies, and revealed economic laws, he integrated this with his study of philosophy, each enhancing the other. Mao Zedong’s economic thought has a profound philosophical foundation, permeated with the basic principles of historical materialism and dialectical materialism. It can be said that the Marxist historical materialism and materialist dialectics provided the most solid worldview and methodological foundation for Mao Zedong’s economic research. Its concrete manifestations are: the theories of social basic contradictions, class analysis, and the mass line in historical materialism were particularly prominently applied in Mao Zedong’s economic thought; social basic contradictions are the theoretical cornerstone of historical materialism and also the framework of Mao Zedong’s economic thought; Mao Zedong’s analysis of the connections and relationships between agriculture, light industry, and heavy industry, accumulation and consumption, the state, the collective, and the individual, economic construction and military construction, as well as finance and the economy, all shine with the brilliance of materialist dialectics; Mao Zedong correctly understood the national conditions based on historical materialism, grasped the basic contradictions and class relations in Chinese society, correctly solved the prospects, targets, tasks, and driving forces of the Chinese revolution with dialectics, founded the theory of the new-democratic revolution, and revealed a law of economic development that transitions through the new-democratic revolution to the socialist revolution, thereby establishing the socialist system; works such as *Economic Problems and Financial Problems*, *On the Ten Major Relationships*, and *On the Correct Handling of Contradictions Among the People* are both Mao Zedong’s economics works rich in content and his philosophical works profound in implication.

就马克思主义哲学而言，论者普遍认为，毛泽东在研究中国经济问题、制定经济政策、揭示经济规律时，与他对哲学的研究融为一体、相得益彰。毛泽东经济思想有着深厚的哲学底蕴，渗透着历史唯物主义和辩证唯物主义基本原理。可以说，马克思主义唯物史观和唯物辩证法为毛泽东的经济研究提供了最坚实的世界观和方法论基础。其具体表现在：历史唯物主义关于社会基本矛盾、阶级分析、群众路线理论在毛泽东经济思想中运用得尤为突出，社会基本矛盾是历史唯物主义的理论基石，也是毛泽东经济思想的构架；毛泽东对于农轻重，积累与消费，国家、集体与个人，经济建设与军事建设，以及财政与经济之间的联系和关系的分析，无不闪耀着唯物辩证法光辉；毛泽东以唯物史观正确认识国情，把握中国社会的基本矛盾和阶级关系，以辩证法正确解决中国革命的前途、对象、任务、动力等问题，创立新民主主义革命理论，揭示出一条经过新民主主义革命转变为社会主义革命，进而建立起社会主义制度的经济发展规律；《经济问题与财政问题》《论十大关系》《关于正确处理人民内部矛盾的问题》等既是毛泽东内容丰富的经济学著作，又是内蕴深刻的哲学著作。

Commentators generally believe that many theories in Marxist political economy and scientific socialism played an important guiding role in the formation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. For example: the theory of the relationship between productive forces and relations of production, and between the economic base and the superstructure; the theory of first establishing the political power of the proletariat and then establishing the socialist economic system; the theory of directly expropriating the property of capitalists for ownership by the socialist state, and transforming individual small private ownership into socialist public ownership through cooperatives; the theory of the ownership of the means of production and the nature of relations of production; the theory of social reproduction; the theory of distribution; the theory of the mutual relationship between industry and agriculture and agriculture being the foundation of the national economy; the theory of high-speed growth of the socialist economy; the theory of the stages of development from capitalism to communism, etc. Some commentators point out that Mao Zedong was a great and outstanding Marxist economist. Mao Zedong attached great importance to studying the basic theories of Marxism, especially the intensive reading of Marxist economics works, such as *Capital*, *Basic Theories of Marxist Economics*, *Outline of Economics*, *Course in Political Economy*, *Outline of Economic Science*, etc., possessing a profound foundation in Marxist theory. Some commentators emphasize that Marxism and scientific socialism revealed the objective laws of the development of human society, pointing out that the capitalist exploitation system based on private ownership of the means of production will inevitably be replaced by a new system. This system is the socialist system based on public ownership of the means of production, eliminating exploitation, with laborers owning all the means of production in society, to realize the industrialization and modernization of the national economy. Mao Zedong accepted and consciously applied it to guide the practice of the Chinese revolution.

论者普遍认为，马克思主义政治经济学和科学社会主义中的诸多理论对毛泽东经济思想的形成具有重要指导作用。比如，生产力同生产关系、经济基础同上层建筑关系理论；先建立无产阶级政权，而后建立社会主义经济制度理论；直接剥削资本家财产为社会主义国家所有，通过合作社改造个体小私有制为社会主义公有制理论；生产资料所有制与生产关系性质理论；社会再生产理论；分配理论；工农业相互关系以及农业是国民经济基础理论；社会主义经济高速增长理论；资本主义向共产主义发展阶段理论等。有论者指出，毛泽东是一位伟大、杰出的马克思主义经济学家。毛泽东很重视学习马克思主义基础理论，特别是马克思主义经济学著作的研读，如《资本论》《马克思主义经济学基础理论》《经济学大纲》《政治经济学教程》《经济科学大纲》等，拥有深厚的马克思主义理论底蕴。有论者强调，马克思主义、科学社会主义，揭示了人类社会发展客观规律，指明了建立在生产资料私有制基础上的资本主义剥削制度，必将为另一个崭新制度代替。这个制度就是以生产资料公有制为基础，消灭剥削，劳动者拥有社会全部生产资料，以实现国民经济工业化和现代化的社会主义制度。毛泽东接受并自觉运用它去指导中国革命实践。

Second, consciously engaging in the practice of China’s revolution and construction is the practical basis for the formation and development of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. It can be said that Mao Zedong’s economic thought originated from the practice of China’s revolution and construction, and was continuously developed and perfected in practice. It was gradually formed and developed by making theoretical generalizations of the original experiences of China’s revolution and construction practice based on the basic principles of Marxism.

第二，自觉投身中国革命与建设实践，是毛泽东经济思想形成和发展的实践基础。可以说，毛泽东经济思想源于中国革命和建设实践，又在实践中不断发展完善，是依据马克思主义基本原理对中国革命和建设实践的独创性经验做出理论概括而逐步形成和发展起来的。

Some commentators point out that Mao Zedong’s economic thought emerged during the process of building base areas under the armed independent regime of workers and peasants [1]1 “Armed independent regime of workers and peasants” (工农武装割据) refers to the strategy of establishing rural revolutionary base areas controlled by the Communist Party, combining armed struggle, land reform, and base area construction, which was a key concept in Mao’s early revolutionary theory. in the period of the new-democratic revolution, developed from the founding of New China to the socialist transformation in 1956, and matured in the process of exploring a path of socialist construction suitable for China’s conditions. Some commentators believe that Mao Zedong’s economic thought was formed in the decades-long practice of the Chinese revolution, running through the entire process of China’s revolution and construction. Other scholars further point out that the formation, development, and maturation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought progressed forward with the development of the practice of China’s revolution and construction. Certain unique characteristics of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, or its development of Marxism-Leninism, precisely originated from the rich practice of China’s revolution and construction. For example, based on the practice of socialist construction, Mao Zedong for the first time expounded the theory of basic contradictions in socialist society; in the process from revolution to socialist construction, he concretely analyzed the status and role of the Chinese bourgeoisie in the development of the national economy, and their attitudes towards the democratic revolution and socialist revolution arising from this, distinguishing them into the bureaucratic-comprador bourgeoisie, the national bourgeoisie, and the petty bourgeoisie, thereby adopting different policies, etc.

有论者指出，毛泽东经济思想产生于新民主主义革命时期工农武装割据的根据地建设过程之中，发展于新中国成立到1956年的社会主义改造之中，成熟于探索一条适合中国情况的社会主义建设道路之中。有论者则认为，毛泽东的经济思想形成于中国革命数十载的实践中，贯穿整个中国革命和建设历程。还有学者进一步指出，毛泽东经济思想从形成、发展到成熟是随着中国革命和建设实践的发展而向前发展的。毛泽东经济思想表现出的某些独特性，或者说对马克思列宁主义的发展，正是来源于中国革命和建设的丰富实践。譬如，毛泽东根据社会主义建设实践，第一次阐述了社会主义社会基本矛盾理论；从革命到社会主义建设进程中，具体分析了中国资产阶级在国民经济发展中的地位和作用，及由此对民主主义革命和社会主义革命所持态度，把他们区分为官僚买办资产阶级、民族资产阶级与小资产阶级，从而采取不同政策，等等。

At the same time, academic research further emphasizes that in the practice of revolution and construction, Mao Zedong consistently paid attention to adopting social investigation methods. “No investigation, no right to speak” was his famous assertion. Social investigation was an important pathway for the formation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, concentrated in his investigation and analysis of the economic status and political attitudes of various social classes. On the one hand, the process of forming Mao Zedong’s economic thought was precisely the process of investigation and research. Mao Zedong’s economic thought was established on the basis of conducting socio-economic investigations guided by the basic theories of Marxism-Leninism, scientifically analyzing the objects and materials of investigation, thereby finding the laws of movement of things, generating new theories, and using them to guide China’s revolution and construction. Precisely because of this, Mao Zedong’s economic thought not only correctly explained China’s economic relations but also correctly transformed China’s economic relations. On the other hand, Mao Zedong would adopt various flexible and diverse social investigation methods according to the development of the revolutionary situation and work needs.

同时，学界研究进一步强调，在革命和建设实践中，毛泽东一贯注重采用社会调查方法。“没有调查就没有发言权”是他的著名论断。社会调查是毛泽东经济思想形成的重要途径，集中体现在他对社会各阶级经济地位和政治态度的调查和分析中。一方面，毛泽东经济思想的形成过程就是调查研究的过程。毛泽东经济思想是建立在以马克思列宁主义基本理论为指导做社会经济调查的基础上，对调研对象、材料进行科学分析，从而找出事物运动规律，产生新的理论，用来指导中国革命建设。正因此，毛泽东经济思想不仅正确说明了我国的经济关系，而且正确改造了我国的经济关系。另一方面，毛泽东会根据革命形势发展和工作需要，采取各种灵活多样的社会调查办法。

During the democratic revolution era, Mao Zedong went deep into the countryside and conducted extensive rural investigations, which gave him a thorough understanding of rural socio-economic conditions and class relations, thereby enabling him to arrive at correct theoretical cognition. For example, through his investigation of five counties in Hunan, Mao elucidated that the peasants were the main ally of the Chinese revolution, resolving the question of whom the revolution should mainly rely on. Through his Xunwu investigation, he clarified the issues of rich peasants and landlords, and proposed strategies for dealing with rich peasants and the urban poor. Through his Xingguo investigation, he learned that the 6 percent of the population comprising landlords and rich peasants owned 80 percent of the land, while the 80 percent of the population comprising poor and lower-middle peasants owned only 20 percent of the land, and therefore concluded that China’s democratic revolution would surely win the support and endorsement of over 80 percent of the people. On this basis, he formulated strategies for struggle that conformed to the actual conditions of the Chinese revolution, guiding revolutionary work toward victory. In the early period after the founding of New China, Mao used the investigative methods of holding forums, corresponding, and reading materials to understand actual social conditions, proposing and implementing the policy of socialist transformation. In the process of exploring socialist construction, Mao conducted investigations into China’s socio-economic conditions, forming “On the Ten Major Relationships” [2]2 “On the Ten Major Relationships” (论十大关系) is a speech delivered by Mao Zedong in April 1956, summarizing ten key relationships in China’s socialist construction, such as those between heavy and light industry, and between coastal and inland industrial development. based on investigations of 34 sectors of the national economy. In the early 1960s, Mao revived the fine tradition of investigation and research, personally organizing and leading investigation teams to conduct surveys, precisely in order to solve new practical problems encountered in construction and formulate reform measures that conformed to the objective laws of economic development, thereby opening the path for the stable development of the national economy.

在民主革命年代，毛泽东深入农村，做了广泛的农村调查，使他对农村社会经济状况和阶级关系有了透彻了解，从而得到了正确的理论认知。比如，毛泽东通过对湖南五县的考察，阐明农民是中国革命主要同盟军，解决了革命主要依靠谁的问题。他通过寻乌调查，弄清了富农与地主问题，提出了解决富农和城市贫农的策略。他通过兴国调查，了解到占人口6%的地主富农占有80%的土地，而占人口80%的贫下中农只占有20%的土地，因而认定中国的民主革命一定能够获得80%以上人民的拥护和赞助。以此为基础，制定出符合中国革命实际的斗争策略，指导革命工作走向胜利。新中国成立初期，毛泽东通过召开座谈会、通信和阅看材料的调研方式，了解社会实际情况，提出并落实社会主义改造政策。在探索社会主义建设过程中，毛泽东进行中国社会经济情况调查，形成了在对34个国民经济部门调查基础上的《论十大关系》。20世纪60年代初期，毛泽东重提调查研究的优良传统，亲自组织和领导调查组进行调查，为的就是解决建设中遇到的新的实际问题，制定符合经济发展客观规律的改革措施，从而为国民经济的稳定发展开辟道路。

Third, China’s history and culture are the important soil in which Mao Zedong’s economic thought took shape and developed. That is to say, Mao Zedong’s economic thought is rooted in the fertile ground of China’s socio-economic historical development and the economic ideas of advanced Chinese people.

第三，中国的历史和文化是毛泽东经济思想形成和发展的重要土壤。也就是说，毛泽东经济思想植根于中国社会经济发展的历史以及先进国人经济思想的沃土。

First, research and cognition of Chinese history. Some commentators point out that the foundation and entire substance of Mao Zedong’s economic thought lies in Mao’s serious study of the history of China’s socio-economic development, recognizing that the basic reason for the long-term stagnation of China’s feudal society was the extreme poverty and backwardness of the peasants caused by the cruel exploitation and oppression of the peasantry by the landlord class. And the most fundamental reason for the extreme backwardness of China’s modern economy, politics, and culture, and for the people living in dire straits, was that imperialism and its accomplices in China—the comprador bourgeoisie—colluding with the warlords and bureaucrats of the feudal landlord class, cruelly oppressed the broad masses of the Chinese people, especially the peasants, politically and cruelly exploited them economically, forcing them to live in hunger and cold, deprived of all political rights. Therefore, only by implementing thorough economic transformation could the severely fettered productive forces be liberated, promoting rapid economic development, enabling China to embark on the path to prosperity and strength, and allowing the people to live a life of peace and contentment.

一是对于中国历史的研究和认知。有论者指出，毛泽东经济思想的基础和全部实质，在于毛泽东认真研究了中国社会经济发展的历史，认识到中国封建社会长期陷入发展迟缓状态的基本原因，乃是地主阶级对农民的残酷剥削和压迫所导致农民的极端贫穷和落后。而中国近代经济、政治、文化发展极端落后，人民身处水深火热之中的最根本原因，则是帝国主义及其在中国的帮凶——买办资产阶级，勾结封建地主阶级的军阀官僚，在政治上残酷压迫，在经济上残酷剥削中国广大人民，特别是农民，使他们过着饥寒交迫和毫无政治权利的生活。因此，只有实行彻底的经济变革，才能解放被严重束缚了的生产力，促进经济迅速发展，使中国走上繁荣富强的道路，让人民过上安居乐业的日子。

Second, inheriting, critiquing, and developing traditional thought and culture. Some commentators point out that Mao Zedong was deeply versed in the essence of China’s excellent traditional culture, and his economic thought was also deeply influenced by the advanced thought and culture of our predecessors. Specific examples include: economic concepts such as Hong Xiuquan’s “Heavenly Kingdom on Earth,” Kang Youwei’s “Great Harmony World,” and Sun Yat-sen’s “Principle of Livelihood” had an important influence on the generation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. In particular, the economic equality ideas proposed by Sun Yat-sen, such as “equalization of land rights,” “regulation of capital,” and “nationalization of land, railways, and factories,” played a major role in the formation of Mao Zedong’s ideas on eliminating excessively large income disparities and developing large-scale industry. Mao inherited the traditional idea of “strengthening the foundation and opening up sources,” consistently upholding the general policy of developing the economy and ensuring supply in economic and financial work. He deepened the traditional idea of advocating thrift, always regarding diligence, frugality, opposing corruption and waste, and maintaining a hard-working style as a basic principle of the revolutionary era and the development of the socialist economy. Some commentators further point out that in its formation and development, Mao Zedong’s economic thought did not simply follow traditional thought and culture, but used the Marxist-Leninist stance, viewpoint, and method to dialectically inherit the essence and discard the dross of traditional economic thought, making it a guiding ideology applicable to China’s revolution and construction. Main examples include: Mao Zedong always attached importance to economic construction during the revolutionary war years, correctly handling the relationship between fighting and production, forming the idea of “supporting the war through agriculture, combining agriculture and war,” which was the application of basic Marxist principles such as the economic base determining the superstructure and the masses creating history in the practice of war, as well as an inheritance and transcendence of ancient Chinese thought on agriculture and war. He critically inherited the traditional economic idea of “agriculture as the foundation,” emphasizing placing the development of agricultural production at the forefront of economic work, while simultaneously absorbing and developing Sun Yat-sen’s idea of “land to the tiller,” advocating the use of violent means to confiscate the land of the feudal landlord class and distribute it to the peasants. At the same time, he criticized the absolute egalitarianism of the predecessors’ idea of “tilling the fields together,” rejected the tendency in traditional thought to neglect the improvement of agricultural production tools, and placed special emphasis on technological innovation in agricultural production, implementing scientific farming.

二是继承、批判和发展传统思想文化。有论者指出，毛泽东深谙中华优秀传统文化精髓，其经济思想亦深受吾先辈先进思想文化的熏陶。具体例证如：洪秀全的“人间天堂”、康有为的“大同世界”以及孙中山的“民生主义”等经济理念，对毛泽东经济思想的生成有着重要影响。特别是孙中山提出的“平均地权”“节制资本”“土地、铁路、工厂国有化”这些经济平等思想，对毛泽东一直主张的消灭收入上的过大差距，发展大工业经济思想的形成起了很大作用；继承传统“强本开源”思想，在经济工作和财政工作中一直秉持发展经济，保障供给的总方针；深化传统崇俭思想，始终把勤俭节约、反贪污浪费、保持艰苦奋斗作风，视为革命年代和发展社会主义经济的一项基本原则。有论者进一步指出，毛泽东经济思想在形成发展中并非简单因袭传统思想文化，而是运用马克思列宁主义立场、观点、方法，对传统经济思想进行了取其精华、弃其糟粕的辩证继承，使之成为适用于中国革命和建设的指导思想。主要例证如：毛泽东在革命战争年代始终重视经济建设，正确处理了战斗与生产的关系，所形成的“以农养战、农战结合”思想，就是经济基础决定上层建筑，人民群众创造历史等马克思主义基本原理在战争实践中的运用，也是对中国古代农战思想的继承和超越；批判继承了“农本”传统经济思想，强调把发展农业生产摆在经济工作首位，同时吸收并发展了孙中山的“耕者有其田”思想，主张采取暴力手段，没收封建地主阶级土地归农民所有，同时批判先人绝对平均主义的“有田同耕”思想，摒弃传统思想中不重视改进农业生产工具的倾向，特别重视农业生产技术创新，实行科学种田。

Thus, existing research has elucidated the basic theoretical and practical sources of the emergence, formation, and development of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, revealed how these important resource conditions constructed the internal logic of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, and demonstrated their dialectical unity, thereby forming the following mainstream academic views: The first view holds that Mao Zedong’s economic thought is the theoretical crystallization of combining the basic principles of Marxism with the concrete realities of China’s revolution and construction, exploring a path of socialist economic construction with Chinese characteristics. The second view points out that the Marxist stance, viewpoint, and method are the fundamental theoretical guidance and action guide for Mao Zedong’s economic thought, while at the same time, Mao Zedong’s economic thought was formed and developed in the process of integrating with China’s national conditions and the realities of China’s revolution and construction, which in turn enriches and develops Marxism. The third view, based on national conditions and historical conditions, and seeking in practice to study and solve China’s practical problems, is the root of the characteristic of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context [3]3 “Adapting Marxism to the Chinese context” (马克思主义中国化) is a core principle of the CPC, referring to the application of Marxist theory to China’s specific historical and practical conditions. in Mao Zedong’s economic thought.

可见，既有研究阐明了毛泽东经济思想产生、形成和发展的基本理论和实践来源，揭示了这些重要的资源条件构筑起毛泽东经济思想的内在逻辑，论证了它们之间的辩证统一关系，从而形成了如下主流学术观点：第一种观点认为，毛泽东经济思想是把马克思主义基本原理同中国革命和建设的具体实际相结合，探索具有中国特色的社会主义经济建设道路的理论结晶；第二种观点指出，马克思主义的立场、观点和方法是毛泽东经济思想的根本理论遵循和行动指南，同时毛泽东经济思想是在结合中国国情、中国革命和建设实际过程中形成和发展起来的，这又是对马克思主义的丰富和发展；第三种观点立足于国情、史情，并在实践中力求研究和解决中国实际问题，是毛泽东经济思想具有马克思主义中国化特征的根源所在。

II. Research on the Theoretical Connotations of Mao Zedong’s Economic Thought

二、毛泽东经济思想的理论内涵研究

Mao Zedong’s economic thought possesses a fairly complete theoretical system and rich theoretical connotations. It was formed by Mao Zedong, under the guidance of the basic principles of Marxism, in the long-term leadership and participation in the New Democratic Revolution, the socialist revolution, and socialist construction, and is embodied in the programs, guidelines, and policies of economic construction in the revolutionary base areas and New China. Some commentators summarize the basic content of Mao Zedong’s economic thought as the theory of “two transformations” and “one exploration” from a semi-colonial and semi-feudal economic system to a socialist economic system. Specifically, it includes: first, the theory of transforming the semi-colonial and semi-feudal economic system into a New Democratic economic system; second, the theory of transforming the New Democratic economic system into a socialist economic system; third, the preliminary exploration and arduous pioneering of an underdeveloped socialist economic system. Some commentators further summarize Mao Zedong’s economic thought into three major theoretical systems: the New Democratic economic theory, the socialist transformation theory, and the socialist economic construction theory, while also pointing out that the three have a certain independence but also a causal relationship with each other.

毛泽东经济思想具有相当完整的理论体系和丰富的理论内涵，是毛泽东在马克思主义基本原理指导下，长期领导和投身于新民主主义革命、社会主义革命和社会主义建设过程中所形成的，体现于革命根据地和新中国经济建设中的纲领、方针和政策。有论者将毛泽东经济思想的基本内容总结为“两个转变”和“一个探索”的半殖民地半封建经济制度向社会主义经济制度转变的理论。具体包括，一是半殖民地半封建经济制度转变为新民主主义经济制度的理论；二是新民主主义经济制度转变为社会主义经济制度的理论；三是对不发达社会主义经济制度的初步探索和艰苦创业。有论者进一步将毛泽东经济思想概括为新民主主义经济论、社会主义改造论和社会主义经济建设论三大理论体系，同时指出三者既有一定独立性，互相又存在着因果关系。

First, in the course of leading the arduous New Democratic Revolution, Mao Zedong proposed and established a series of economic revolutionary lines, the guidelines and policies for economic construction in the revolutionary base areas, and the economic construction plan for the New Democratic Republic, thereby forming the New Democratic economic thought. It is an important component of Mao Zedong’s New Democracy theory, and a theoretical and practical guide for leading the revolution to transform the relations of production of the semi-colonial and semi-feudal society and establish the socio-economic system of the New Democracy.

第一，毛泽东在领导艰苦卓绝的新民主主义革命进程中，提出并确立了一系列经济革命路线、革命根据地经济建设的方针政策，以及新民主主义共和国经济建设方案，由此形成了新民主主义经济思想。它是毛泽东新民主主义论的重要组成部分，是引领革命变革半殖民地半封建社会生产关系，建立新民主主义社会经济制度的理论与实践指南。

Some commentators focus their research on the New Democratic economic program. Studies indicate that the New Democratic economic program is a concentrated summary of Mao Zedong’s New Democratic economic thought. It includes not only the three major economic programs of the New Democratic Revolution but also the new economic structure established in New Democratic society, as well as content related to restoring and developing economic production. The primary purpose of the former is to thoroughly transform the old relations of production, remove obstacles to the development of productive forces, and create the possibility for the development of productive forces. The latter is committed to establishing an economic form and economic system that is distinct from both general capitalist economy and socialist economy.

有论者将研究落脚点放在新民主主义经济纲领上。研究指出，新民主主义经济纲领是毛泽东新民主主义经济思想的集中概括，既包括新民主主义革命的三大经济纲领，也包含在新民主主义社会建立起来的新的经济结构，以及恢复和发展经济生产方面的内容。前者的主要目的是彻底改变旧的生产关系，扫除生产力发展障碍，为生产力发展提供可能。后者则致力于建立一种既区别于一般资本主义经济，又区别于社会主义的经济形态和经济制度。

Based on existing research, the author divides Mao Zedong’s New Democratic economic thought into the following four major theoretical components.

根据既有研究，笔者将毛泽东新民主主义经济思想分为以下四大理论板块。

First, the theory of the socio-economic form of semi-colonial and semi-feudal society. It is the foundation of Mao Zedong’s New Democratic economic program and economic policies. Through an analysis of the economic status of various classes in Chinese society—that is, their possession of the means of production—Mao pointed out that old China contained five economic components: imperialism, feudalism, bureaucratic-comprador capitalism, national capitalism, and small producers. The main economic bases were the private ownership system of the landlord class, the private ownership system of bureaucratic monopoly capitalism, and the private ownership system of imperialist monopoly capitalism. Productive forces were backward, and economic development was extremely unbalanced. In this regard, some commentators summarize that Mao’s macroscopic grasp of the economic and social conditions of old China, his sober understanding of the extremely backward level of development of productive forces, and his accurate recognition of the actual balance of class forces provided the fullest basis for establishing the New Democratic economic program and economic policies.

一是半殖民地半封建社会经济形态论。它是毛泽东新民主主义经济纲领和经济政策的基础。毛泽东通过对中国社会各阶级经济地位，即生产资料占有度的分析指出，旧中国存在帝国主义、封建主义、官僚买办资本主义、民族资本主义和小生产者五种经济成分，以地主阶级私有制、官僚垄断资本主义私有制、帝国主义垄断资本主义私有制为主要经济基础，生产力落后，经济发展极不平衡。对此，有论者总结道，毛泽东对旧中国经济社会状况的宏观把握，对极端落后的生产力发展水平的清醒认识和对现实阶级力量对比关系的准确认识，为其确立新民主主义经济纲领和经济政策提供了最充分的依据。

Second, the economic program of the New Democratic Revolution. Existing research systematically analyzes the historical process of the formation and implementation of the three major revolutionary programs and their theoretical connotations, indicating that the New Democratic revolutionary economic program, as a means of transforming the relations of production in old China and also as one of the important measures for restoring and developing social production in the early days of New China, was finally completed by 1952. Representative views point out that Mao Zedong fully proposed the New Democratic revolutionary economic program in *On New Democracy*. It was formed on the basis of the continuous summation of practical experience in revolutionary base areas and liberated areas by the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as the main representative, during the exploration of the revolutionary path of encircling the cities from the countryside and seizing state power by armed force. Its specific implementation process is as follows:

二是新民主主义革命经济纲领。既有研究系统分析了三大革命纲领形成、实施的历史过程及其理论内涵，指明新民主主义革命经济纲领作为变革旧中国生产关系，同时作为新中国成立初期恢复和发展社会生产的重要措施之一，至1952年最终完成。代表性观点指出：毛泽东在《新民主主义论》中完整提出了新民主主义革命经济纲领，是以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人在探索农村包围城市、武装夺取政权的革命道路中，不断总结革命根据地和解放区根据地实践经验基础上形成的。其具体实施的过程为：

The work of confiscating bureaucratic capitalist enterprises accompanied the gradual victory of the People’s Liberation War across the country. Relying on the power of the people’s political authority, it was carried out as an important task of taking over cities, gradually spreading to newly liberated cities. By the end of 1949, when the country was basically liberated, all bureaucratic capitalist enterprises on the mainland had been confiscated. After the founding of New China, the new people’s political authority established a state-owned economy that dominated the national economy through means such as confiscating bureaucratic capital, directly confiscating enterprises of enemy puppets, and taking over imperialist enterprises in China. Through democratic reform and production reform, it established socialist enterprise management systems, thereby completely eliminating the exploitative relations of bureaucratic capitalism, clearing away the remnants of feudal oppressive relations, establishing the status of laborers as masters in the state and enterprises, and initially establishing a socialist state-owned economy.

没收官僚资本主义企业的工作，是伴随人民解放战争在全国范围内的逐步胜利，依靠人民政权的力量，作为接管城市的重要任务，逐步向新解放的城市铺开的。至1949年底全国基本解放，大陆的官僚资本主义企业均被没收。新中国成立后，新生的人民政权通过没收官僚资本、直接没收敌伪企业、接收帝国主义在华企业等途径建立起主导国民经济的国营经济，又通过民主改革和生产改革建立社会主义企业管理制度，从而彻底消灭官僚资本主义剥削关系，清除残余封建主义压迫关系，确立劳动者在国家和企业中的主人翁地位，初步建立社会主义国有制经济。

The work of confiscating the land of the feudal landlord class: during the New Democratic Revolution stage, our Party implemented the system of land to the tiller through the gradual land reform of 145 million agricultural population in the base areas and liberated areas. After the founding of New China, the general line and general policy of land reform was implemented: “rely on the poor peasants and farm laborers, unite with the middle peasants, neutralize the rich peasants, and step by step and with differentiation eliminate the feudal exploitation system and develop agricultural production.” Land reform was carried out for 264 million agricultural population in the newly liberated areas. Land and property of landlords who concurrently operated industry and commerce, as well as land directly used for operating industry and commerce, were not confiscated. At the same time, individual handicraft economy was protected and developed to promote the recovery of handicrafts.

没收封建地主阶级土地的工作，在新民主主义革命阶段，我们党通过逐步对根据地、解放区的1.45亿农业人口进行土地改革，实行了耕者有其田制度。新中国成立后，执行“依靠贫农、雇农，团结中农，中立富农，有步骤有分别地消灭封建剥削制度，发展农业生产”的土地改革总路线和总政策，对新解放区的2.64亿农业人口进行土改。而对地主兼营的工商业及其直接用于经营工商业的土地和财产不予没收，同时保护和发展个体手工业经济，促进手工业的恢复。

The work of protecting national capitalist industry and commerce was reflected in protecting the private property of national capitalists in the revolutionary base areas and allowing the development of capitalist production that did not manipulate the livelihood of the people. After the founding of New China, under the guidance of the policy of protecting and developing national capitalism with restrictions, through three steps—fostering beneficial national capitalist industry and commerce, cracking down on speculative capital and adjusting national capitalist industry and commerce, launching the “Three-Anti Campaign” [4]4 The “Three-Anti Campaign” (1951–1952) was a nationwide movement in the early PRC targeting corruption, waste, and bureaucracy within the Party, government, and state-owned enterprises. and further adjusting national capitalist industry and commerce—the recovery of national capitalist industry and commerce was promoted.

保护民族资本主义工商业的工作，体现在保护革命根据地中民族资本家的私有财产，允许不操纵国民生计的资本主义生产发展。新中国成立后，在保护和有限制地发展民族资本主义方针指引下，经过扶植有益的民族资本主义工商业，打击投资资本和调整民族资本主义工商业，开展“三反”运动和进一步调整民族资本主义工商业三个步骤，促进民族资本主义工商业得到恢复。

Third, the guidelines and policies for economic construction in revolutionary base areas. Existing research indicates that under the general guideline for financial and economic work proposed by Mao Zedong, “develop the economy and ensure supply,” the base areas actively implemented policies such as self-reliance, seeking external aid but not relying on it, better troops and simpler administration, establishing economic accounting in enterprises, and producing according to need. They actively mobilized the army, organs, schools, and the masses to carry out production campaigns, developing a public economy and a private economy with agriculture as the mainstay, supplemented by handicrafts and commerce, to ensure financial supply and meet the essential material needs of the military and the people. On this basis, commentators focus on specific economic construction measures in the revolutionary base areas to elucidate Mao Zedong’s thought on New Democratic revolutionary economic construction. For instance, some commentators discuss Mao Zedong’s economic activities in the base areas during the Agrarian Revolutionary War period, pointing out that Mao’s economic construction thought during this period was mainly reflected in three aspects: proceeding from the fundamental interests of the masses, serving the victory of the revolutionary war, and carrying out economic construction in the base areas; on the basis of restoring and developing industrial and agricultural production in the base areas, promoting commodity circulation within the base areas and foreign trade outside the base areas in a planned way; allowing multiple economic components to coexist, advocating and encouraging the private economy, and developing the state-owned economy and the cooperative economy on a large scale as much as possible, so that they gradually gain an advantage over the private economy and achieve a leading position. Some commentators, taking the successful implementation of foreign economic policies such as attracting investment, talent assistance, and expanding the import and export trade of the Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia Border Region during the Anti-Japanese War as an example, discuss the profound connotations of Mao Zedong’s thought on utilizing foreign capital during this period. These mainly include: utilizing foreign capital is a way to develop the economy and realize national industrialization, with the basic method being to conclude contracts; utilizing foreign capital should not be constrained by political systems or ideologies, and flexible, multi-level, multi-channel capital attraction activities should be carried out; utilizing foreign capital must adhere to the basic principles of safeguarding national sovereignty, self-reliance as the mainstay with external aid as a supplement, equality and mutual benefit, developing the economy, and improving the people’s living standards. Some commentators discuss Mao Zedong’s economic construction guidelines in the Central Soviet Area, mainly reflected in: centering on the revolutionary war, carrying out all possible and necessary economic construction; placing agricultural production first in economic construction work, consolidating the foundation of the base area economy; proceeding from the actual economic structure of the base area, insisting on the simultaneous development of the state-owned economy, the cooperative economy, and the private economy; opening up the foreign trade of the base area, invigorating commodity circulation in the base area; implementing the policy of developing the national economy to increase fiscal revenue, with fiscal expenditure strictly economized; implementing a correct monetary policy to prevent inflation; mobilizing and relying on the broad masses to participate in economic construction, earnestly paying attention to and solving people’s livelihood issues; cultivating and creating a large number of cadres and talents who understand economics and are good at governance and financial management, and extensively absorbing all people of insight to participate in economic construction. Some commentators discuss a series of measures taken by Mao Zedong to develop the economy in the Central Soviet Area. For example, under the insistence on the idea that “agricultural production is the primary task of economic work,” in response to the shortage of labor and the lack of draft animals in the base areas during the busy farming season, various forms of agricultural cooperatives were established and developed. Ox-plow cooperatives, labor mutual-aid societies, and plowing teams became the main forms for promoting economic construction and development in the base areas.

三是革命根据地经济建设的方针政策。已有研究指明，在毛泽东提出的“发展经济、保障供给”的财政经济工作总方针下，根据地积极落实自力更生、争取外援但不依赖外援、精兵简政、企业建立经济核算、按需生产等政策，积极发动军队、机关、学校和人民群众开展生产运动，发展以农业为主，兼顾手工业和商业的公营经济、民营经济，用以保障财政供给，满足军民必不可少的物质需要。在此基础上，论者着眼于革命根据地的具体经济建设举措，用以阐释毛泽东的新民主主义革命经济建设思想。诸如，有论者论述了土地革命时期毛泽东在根据地所从事的经济活动，指出这一时期毛泽东的经济建设思想主要体现在三个方面：从人民群众的根本利益出发，服务于革命战争的胜利，进行根据地经济建设；在恢复和发展根据地工农生产基础上，有计划地促进根据地内的商品流通和根据地外的对外贸易；允许多种经济成分并存，提倡和奖励私人经济，尽可能发展国营经济和大规模发展合作社经济，使之对私人经济逐渐占优势并取得领导地位。有论者以抗战时期陕甘宁边区成功实行招商引资、人才援建、扩大边区出入口贸易等对外经济政策为例，论述了这一时期毛泽东利用外资思想的深刻内涵，主要包括：利用外资是发展经济、实现国家工业化的途径，基本方式是订立契约；利用外资不受政治制度、意识形态束缚，应当灵活开展多层次、多渠道引资活动；利用外资要坚持维护国家主权、自力更生为主，争取外援为辅，平等互利、发展经济、提高人民生活水平的基本原则。有论者论述了毛泽东在中央苏区的经济建设方针，主要体现在：以革命战争为中心，进行一切可能和必要的经济建设；把农业生产放在经济建设工作的第一位，夯实根据地经济的基础；从根据地经济结构的实际出发，坚持发展国营经济、合作社经济和私人经济并进；开放根据地的对外贸易，搞活根据地的商品流通；实行发展国民经济增加财政收入，财政支出厉行节省的方针；实行正确的货币政策，防止通货膨胀；动员和依靠广大群众参加经济建设，切实关注和解决民生问题；培养和造就大批懂经济、善于治政理财的干部人才，广泛吸收一切有识之士参与经济建设。有论者论述了毛泽东在中央苏区发展经济的一系列举措。比如，在坚持“农业生产是经济工作的第一位”思想下，针对农忙时节根据地劳动力短缺及耕牛不足状况，建立和发展各种形式的农业合作社，犁牛合作社、劳动互助社和耕田队，成为促进根据地经济建设与发展的主要形式。

Fourth is the theory of the new-democratic social economy. It comprises the economic construction measures of the three-year period of national economic recovery, mainly including: the theory of the new-democratic social economic form. Commentators point out that Mao Zedong’s conception of the new-democratic social economy was that the entire economy consisted of five economic sectors: socialist state-owned economy, semi-socialist cooperative economy, state-capitalist economy, private capitalist economy, and individual economy of agriculture and handicrafts. It should fully develop private capitalist economy beneficial to the people’s livelihood, but not allow private capital to control the people’s livelihood. In the cities, it should gradually develop the socialist state-owned economy and publicly owned economy, which were few in number, making them the leading force of the national economy and playing a decisive role in national economic development. In the countryside, it should develop cooperative economy with socialist factors. Mao Zedong’s theory of the new-democratic social economy designed a path of non-capitalist development, but one that utilized and developed capitalism to serve the socialist modernization drive. The main measures of the new-democratic social economic construction policy included: implementing the economic program of the new-democratic revolution; carrying out the movements to “suppress counterrevolutionaries,” the “Three-Anti Campaign,” and the “Five-Anti Campaign”;[5]5 The “Three-Anti Campaign” (1951–1952) targeted corruption, waste, and bureaucracy within the Party and government; the “Five-Anti Campaign” (1952) targeted bribery, tax evasion, theft of state property, cheating on government contracts, and stealing state economic information among private industrialists and merchants. implementing the “four directions and eight policies”;[6]6 The “four directions and eight policies” (1949) was a set of economic guidelines for the new-democratic period, covering urban-rural relations, public-private relations, labor-capital relations, and domestic-foreign relations, each with two specific policies. economizing on state institutional expenditures; stabilizing prices and unifying finance and economics, etc. Research points out that these basic economic policies were fully implemented during the period of national economic recovery, creating favorable social conditions for the economic recovery and development of New China. The new-democratic social economic form was fully formed, with various economic sectors dividing labor and cooperating under the leadership of the state-owned economy, each getting its due, and the entire social production was basically restored and achieved some development. At the same time, New China established the rudiments of a highly centralized planned economic system adapted to the dominant position of the socialist state-owned economy.

四是新民主主义社会经济论。它是三年国民经济恢复期的经济建设举措，主要包括：新民主主义社会经济形态论。论者指出，毛泽东对新民主主义社会经济方面的构想是，整个经济由社会主义性质的国营经济、半社会主义性质的合作社经济、国家资本主义经济、私人资本主义经济、农业和手工业的个体经济在内的五种经济成分构成，应充分发展有益于国民生计的私人资本主义经济，但不允许私人资本操控国民生计。在城市逐步发展数量较少却是社会主义性质的国营经济、公营经济，使之成为国民经济的领导力量，在国民经济发展中起决定作用。在农村发展具有社会主义因素的合作社经济。毛泽东的新民主主义社会经济论，设计出一条非资本主义发展方向，但利用和发展资本主义服务于社会主义现代化建设的道路。新民主主义社会经济建设方针的主要措施包括：贯彻执行新民主主义革命经济纲领；开展“镇压反革命”“三反”“五反”运动；实行“四面八方”政策；节俭国家机构经费；平抑物价、统一财经等。研究指出：这些基本经济政策在国民经济恢复期得以全面实施，为新中国经济恢复和发展创造了良好社会条件，新民主主义社会经济形态完全形成，各种经济成分在国营经济领导下分工合作、各得其所，整个社会生产基本恢复并有一定发展。同时，新中国建立起与社会主义国有经济占主导地位相适应的高度集中的计划经济体制雏形。

Second, in the seven years from the founding of the People’s Republic of China to the basic completion of socialist transformation, Mao Zedong, based on the economic and political conditions for the transition to socialism created by the victory of the new-democratic revolution, formulated and implemented a series of construction programs and strategic policies for restoring, developing, and transforming the national economy, forming his economic thought of the transition period. Under the guidance of this thought, New China, which emerged from a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society, on the one hand established the new-democratic social economic system and completed the full transition to a new-democratic society; on the other hand, it also laid the basic economic system foundation for the transition from a new-democratic society to a socialist society.

第二，从中华人民共和国成立到社会主义改造基本完成的七年，毛泽东依据新民主主义革命胜利创造的向社会主义过渡的经济政治条件，制定并推行了一系列恢复、发展和改造国民经济的建设纲领和策略方针，形成了过渡时期经济思想。在该思想指导下，脱胎于半殖民地半封建社会的新中国一方面确立了新民主主义社会经济制度，完成了向新民主主义社会的完全转变；另一方面也为新民主主义社会向社会主义社会转变奠定了基本经济制度基础。

At the beginning of the founding of New China, Mao Zedong originally followed the envisioned blueprint for building a new-democratic society, first passing through a fairly long stage of new-democratic social development, and then transitioning to a socialist society. However, in 1952 he proposed the Party’s general line for the transition period. According to the requirements of the general line, New China began the transition to a socialist society, embarking on the path of “one transformation and three reforms.”[7]7 “One transformation and three reforms” refers to the general line for the transition period (1953–1956): socialist industrialization (the “one transformation”) and the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts, and capitalist industry and commerce (the “three reforms”). By the end of 1956, the “three major transformations” were basically completed, marking the establishment of the socialist economic system, and China entered a socialist society. In this regard, existing research fully affirms the general policies and their effectiveness in restoring and developing production and establishing the new-democratic economic system during the new-democratic society period, under the guidance of Mao Zedong’s theory of the new-democratic social economy.

新中国成立伊始，毛泽东本是按照设想的新民主主义社会建设蓝图，先经过一个相当长的新民主主义社会发展阶段，然后转变到社会主义社会。但他于1952年提出了党在过渡时期的总路线。按照总路线的要求，新中国开始向社会主义社会过渡，走出了一条“一化三改”之路。至1956年底“三大改造”基本完成，标志着社会主义经济制度的确立，我国进入了社会主义社会。对此，既有研究充分肯定了新民主主义社会时期，在毛泽东新民主主义社会经济论指导下恢复和发展生产，建立新民主主义经济制度的方针大计及其成效。

On the other hand, academic research has focused on the proposal of the general line for the transition period and its implementation effects, conducting in-depth analysis. Specific issues include: why was the new-democratic society interrupted? Was the general line proposed “too early”? Was the socialist transformation implemented “too hastily”? Were there construction errors and negative effects? In response to these questions, mainstream academic views are mainly explained as follows.

另一方面，学界研究聚焦于过渡时期总路线的提出及其实施效果问题，进行了深入探析。具体问题包括新民主主义社会缘何中辍？总路线是否提出“过早”？社会主义改造是否实施“过急”？是否存在建设失误及负面效应？针对这些问题，主流学术观点主要阐释如下。

First, commentators generally recognize that Mao Zedong’s proposal of the general line for the transition period, moving from new democracy to socialism, was based on China’s specific national conditions, especially the level and needs of socio-economic development, and was in line with the actual social development at the time. The direction of socialist transformation was also correct; this was the historical choice and necessary path for China to take the socialist road. Its theoretical basis and practical foundation lie in: during the first three years of New China’s national economic recovery, the strength of the socialist state-owned economy continuously grew, and preliminary work on the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts, and private industry and commerce began, laying the foundation for the proposal and implementation of the general line of “one transformation and three reforms”; socialist transformation was necessary after the completion of land reform in New China, which was extremely short of materials, to solve the low productivity of the individual peasant economy and the intense class differentiation and class contradictions in the countryside, as well as to constrain, restrict, and transform the profit-seeking speculative activities of private capital; the general line for the transition period was the necessary path for New China, which was relatively backward in economy and culture, to accelerate the realization of national industrialization, but not to take the capitalist industrialization path of relying on squeezing its own people and plundering overseas colonies to complete primitive accumulation, but to take the socialist industrialization path of relying on internal accumulation and concentrating resources to accomplish major tasks. Only by organizing the vast but weak and scattered individual peasant labor force and their very limited means of production, and establishing a socialist collective economy, could the scale effect of agricultural and handicraft production and management be brought into play, and agricultural productivity be improved, to ensure the supply of grain, industrial raw materials, and funds needed for industrialization construction. At the same time, only by accelerating the pace of socialist transformation of private capitalist industry and commerce could the fundamental requirement of highly centralized and unified use of limited resources for large-scale industrial construction be met; the general line for the transition period was an inevitable choice for China to align with the socialist camp, accelerate the start of planned industrial construction, strengthen national power, and respond to the military threats and economic blockade of capitalist countries.

一是论者普遍认可毛泽东提出过渡时期总路线，由新民主主义向社会主义过渡，是从我国特殊国情出发，特别是社会经济发展水平和需要出发，符合当时社会发展实际。社会主义改造的方向也是正确的，这是中国走社会主义道路的历史选择和必经之路。其理论依据和现实基础在于：在新中国头三年的国民经济恢复期，社会主义国营经济力量不断壮大，农业、手工业和私营工商业开始了社会主义改造的初步工作，为“一化三改”总路线的提出和实施奠定了基础；社会主义改造是在物资极其匮乏的新中国完成土地改革后，解决农民个体经济生产力低下，以及农村中激烈阶级分化、阶级矛盾的需要，亦是约束、限制和改造唯利是图的私人资本投机活动的需要；过渡时期总路线是经济文化相对落后的新中国想要加速实现国家工业化，但不走依靠压榨本国人民和掠夺海外殖民地完成原始积累的资本主义工业化道路，而走依靠内部积累，集中力量办大事的社会主义工业化道路的必由之路，只有把规模庞大但势单力薄、分散生产的个体农民劳动力极其有限的生产资料组织起来，建立社会主义集体经济，才能发挥农业和手工业生产经营的规模效应，提高农业生产力，以保证工业化建设所需的粮食、工业原料和资金的供应，同时只有加快对私人资本主义工商业的社会主义改造步伐，才能满足高度集中统一地使用有限资源，进行大规模工业建设的根本要求；过渡时期总路线是我国站队社会主义阵营，加快开始有计划的工业建设，以增强国力，应对资本主义国家军事威胁和经济封锁的必然选择。

Second, commentators highly affirm the basic policy of implementing socialist transformation and its historical value, believing that it was the most brilliant and successful path to socialism explored by the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their main representative, in a large agricultural country relatively backward in economy and culture. It resolved the contradictions between social change and material foundation, and between peaceful transition and class struggle. Its outstanding manifestations are:

二是论者高度肯定了社会主义改造实施的基本方针及其历史价值，认为它是以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人，在一个经济文化相对落后的农业大国，探索出的一条向社会主义过渡的最精彩、最成功的道路，解决了社会变革与物质基础、和平过渡与阶级斗争的矛盾问题。其突出表现在：

Adhering to the basic principles of voluntary mutual benefit, typical demonstration, and government support, the three major transformations were steadily advanced. The basic steps of agricultural socialist transformation were to transform originally independent individual peasant economies into mutually cooperative collective economies step by step, through the establishment of mutual aid teams, the formation of elementary cooperatives, and the development of advanced cooperatives. Handicrafts were integrated into the collective ownership economy from the original individual handicraft model through a low-to-high approach of supply and marketing groups, supply and marketing cooperatives, and production cooperatives. Capitalist industry and commerce were transformed through a series of state-capitalist transitional forms from low to high, such as processing with supplied materials, unified purchase and marketing, distribution and consignment, joint public-private management, and full-industry joint public-private management. Using methods such as processing fees, “four-way distribution of profits,”[8]8 “Four-way distribution of profits” was a method used during the socialist transformation of capitalist industry and commerce (1953–1956), where enterprise profits were divided into four parts: state taxes, enterprise funds, worker welfare funds, and capitalist dividends. fixed interest, and high salaries, a peaceful buyout of capitalist industry and commerce was carried out, thereby transforming capitalist private ownership enterprises into socialist state-owned economic enterprises.

遵循自愿互利、典型示范、政府扶持的基本原则，稳步推进三大改造。农业社会主义改造的基本步骤，是通过建立互助组、成立初级社、发展高级社，循序渐进式把原先一个个独立的农民个体经济转化为相互合作的集体经济。手工业通过供销小组、供销合作社、生产合作社由低到高的方式，把原先个人手工业模式融入集体所有制经济。资本主义工商业通过加工订货、统购统销、经销代销、公私合营、全行业公私合营等一系列从低级到高级的国家资本主义过渡形式，采取工缴费、“四马分肥”、定息、高薪等方式，对资本主义工商业进行和平赎买，从而将资本主义私有制企业改造成为社会主义国营经济企业。

It created a path that combined industrialization and transformation. The three major transformations established public ownership of the means of production and a highly centralized planned economic system, fundamentally meeting the needs of the state to concentrate resources, plan and guide national economic development, especially to build an independent and complete industrial system. It also directly served the requirements of the “First Five-Year Plan” to focus on developing heavy industry and building an industrial foundation, in order to consolidate national independence and security and improve the people’s livelihood.

创造了工业化和改造并举的道路。三大改造建立了生产资料公有制和高度集中的计划经济体制，从根本上适应了国家集中资源，计划指导国民经济发展，特别是建设独立完整工业体系的需要，也直接服务于“一五计划”重点发展重工业，搭建工业基础的要求，以巩固国家的独立和安全，改进人民生活。

The core of agricultural cooperation was to promote agricultural modernization, improve agricultural productivity, and safeguard the fundamental interests of China’s vast peasantry. On the one hand, the advantages of collective ownership of rural land and other means of production, combined with the strength of organized peasants, provided a guarantee for carrying out mechanized agricultural production, using chemical raw materials and scientific farming methods, and developing water conservancy projects, thereby raising the level of productive forces. On the other hand, through the agricultural cooperative movement, a rural collective land system was established in which everyone equally enjoyed the right to collective land income, completely abolishing the problem of land annexation caused by economic or political factors, thereby avoiding polarization among peasants and providing a guarantee for solving the basic survival problems of the vast majority of peasants.

农业合作化的核心是为了促进农业现代化，提高农业生产力，保障中国广大农民的根本利益。一方面，农村土地等生产资料集体所有制优势加上组织起来的农民力量，为农业开展机械化生产，采用化学原料和科学耕作法，发展水利事业，从而为提高生产力水平提供了保障。另一方面，通过农业合作社运动，建立了人人平等享有集体土地收益权的农村集体土地制度，彻底废除了因经济因素或政治因素而导致的土地兼并问题，以避免农民两极分化，为解决广大农民的基本生存问题提供了保障。

The socialist transformation of capitalist industry and commerce was the soundest policy and method proposed by Mao Zedong, based on a scientific analysis of the status and role of China’s capitalist economy and the dual character of the national bourgeoisie, to transform the capitalist economy into a socialist economy. It successfully achieved the transformation of private ownership of the means of production under conditions of relative social stability, while simultaneously completing the transformation of people, turning bourgeois elements from exploiters into self-reliant laborers, and subsequently into members of the working class.

对资本主义工商业的社会主义改造，是毛泽东在科学分析我国资本主义经济地位和作用，以及民族资产阶级两面性特点基础上，提出的变资本主义经济为社会主义经济的最健全的方针和办法。它成功实现了在社会相对稳定的情况下，对生产资料私有制的改造，同时完成了对人的改造，把资产阶级分子由剥削者改造成为自食其力的劳动者，进而成为工人阶级中的一员。

Third, based on the conclusions drawn in the “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party Since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China,” [9]9 The “Resolution on Certain Historical Issues of the Party Since the Founding of the People’s Republic of China” was adopted at the Sixth Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC in 1981. It provides an official Party assessment of major historical events, including the socialist transformation, the Great Leap Forward, and the Cultural Revolution. commentators have assessed the errors and historical limitations of the socialist transformation, pointing out the resulting aftereffects. For example: the pursuit of a pure, unitary socialist economic system model, characterized by单一公有制 (单一公有制) in ownership, a fully planned economy with centralised, highly concentrated power regulated by the state through administrative means in the operational mechanism, and单一按劳分配 (单一按劳分配) in the distribution method; the neglect of the long-term necessity and positive role of individual peasant production and private capital as supplements to the socialist economy; and after the summer of 1955, the accelerated pace of transformation, driven by a desire for quick results, leading to overly crude work.

三是论者根据《关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议》中做出的论断，对社会主义改造存在的失误和历史局限性进行了评述，指出由此带来的后遗症。如追求纯粹的、单一的社会主义经济制度模式，在所有制方面是单一公有制，在运行机制上是由国家运用行政手段进行调节的中央高度集权的完全的计划经济，在分配方式上实行单一按劳分配；忽视农民个体生产和私人资本作为社会主义经济的补充，还有长期存在的必要性和积极作用；1955年夏季后，改造速度加快，急于求成，致使工作过粗。

Third, after the basic completion of the socialist transformation, the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their chief representative, led the people of all ethnic groups across the country to begin a comprehensive, large-scale socialist construction. In exploring a path of socialist construction suited to China’s conditions, Mao Zedong was committed to promoting the development of the national economy, put forward a series of theories on economic construction, and formulated and implemented relevant lines, policies, and guidelines, thereby forming Mao Zedong’s thought on socialist economic construction.

第三，社会主义改造基本完成后，以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人领导全国各族人民，开始转入全面、大规模的社会主义建设。在探索适合中国国情的社会主义建设道路中，毛泽东致力于推动国民经济发展，提出了系列经济建设的理论，并制定、落实了相关路线、方针和政策，由此形成了毛泽东社会主义经济建设思想。

During the period of comprehensive socialist construction, although there was the serious setback of the “Great Leap Forward,” [10]10 The “Great Leap Forward” (1958–1962) was a campaign initiated by Mao Zedong aimed at rapidly industrialising the country and collectivising agriculture, which led to severe economic imbalances and a major famine. Mao Zedong, through his reflection on the “Great Leap Forward” and the people’s commune movement, recognised that China was a large agricultural country still in an underdeveloped stage of socialist development, and that it was necessary to promote the comprehensive and balanced development of the national economy step by step. In this regard, some commentators have pointed out that the “Great Leap Forward” was a socialist economic construction movement in which Mao Zedong attempted to rely on China’s abundant labor resources and high mass enthusiasm to achieve a leap forward in industrial and agricultural production, in order to realise the goal of catching up with and surpassing Britain and the United States as soon as possible. However, by promptly correcting the initial ideas guiding this movement, Mao Zedong gradually found a socialist economic construction plan relatively suited to China’s conditions, which he integrated into the measures for comprehensive socialist construction. A comprehensive review of academic research can summarise this into four major theoretical systems and one core pioneering achievement.

在全面建设社会主义时期，虽出现过“大跃进”的严重挫折，但毛泽东通过对“大跃进”和人民公社化运动的反思，认清中国是个大农业国，仍处于不发达的社会主义发展阶段，必须循序渐进地推动国民经济综合平衡发展。对此，有论者指出，“大跃进”是毛泽东试图凭借我国充足的劳动力资源和高涨的群众热情，实现工、农业生产的飞跃式发展，以便早日实现超英赶美目标的社会主义经济建设运动。但毛泽东通过及时修正当初指导这场运动的设想，逐步找到了比较适合中国国情的社会主义经济建设方案，将之贯穿于全面建设社会主义举措之中。综观学界研究，可以将其归纳为四大理论体系、一大核心创举。

First, the theory of stages of socialist development. Mao Zedong proposed building China into a powerful socialist country with four modernisations in three steps. The first step was to build a socialist society through “one transformation and three reforms” [11]11 “One transformation and three reforms” (一化三改) refers to the general line for the transition period: socialist industrialisation (the “one transformation”) and the socialist transformation of agriculture, handicrafts, and capitalist industry and commerce (the “three reforms”).; the second step was to achieve a relatively full development of the social productive forces over ten to fifteen years, laying the material foundation for modernisation, i.e., building a basically complete industrial system; the third step was to take a hundred years or more to build a powerful modern socialist country.

一是社会主义发展阶段理论。毛泽东提出，分三步把我国建设成为四个现代化的社会主义强国。第一步，通过“一化三改”建成社会主义社会；第二步，经过十年至十五年的社会生产力比较充分的发展，为实现现代化奠定物质基础，即建成一个基本完整的工业体系；第三步，要一百年或者更多的时间，建成现代化的社会主义强国。

Second, the theory of contradictions in socialist society. Mao Zedong consistently applied the method of contradiction analysis when analysing China’s economic problems. He clearly stated that the basic contradiction in socialist society remained the contradiction between the productive forces and the relations of production, and between the superstructure and the economic base, taking this as the fundamental driving force for socialist development, thereby laying the theoretical foundation for reforming and adjusting aspects of the relations of production and the superstructure that were unsuitable for the development of the productive forces, and for continuously perfecting the socialist economic system. Mao Zedong pointed out that after the basic completion of the socialist transformation, the principal contradiction in socialist society was no longer the contradiction between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, but rather the contradiction between the people’s rapidly growing need for economic and cultural development and the current inability of the economy and culture to meet that need, providing the theoretical basis for the Party to establish the fundamental task of developing the productive forces and formulate the basic line of taking economic construction as the central task. He also put forward the theory of correctly distinguishing between two types of contradictions of different natures—contradictions between ourselves and the enemy and contradictions among the people—and indicated that the method of correctly handling contradictions among the people should be used to handle various contradictions in economic work in order to promote economic development.

二是社会主义社会矛盾理论。毛泽东分析中国经济问题始终坚持矛盾分析的方法。他明确提出社会主义社会的基本矛盾仍是生产力和生产关系、上层建筑和经济基础的矛盾，以此作为社会主义发展的根本动力，为改革调整生产关系和上层建筑领域不适合生产力的发展方面，不断完善社会主义经济制度奠定理论基础。毛泽东指出，社会主义改造基本完成后，社会主义社会的主要矛盾已经不再是资产阶级和无产阶级的矛盾，而是人民对于经济文化迅速发展的需要同当前经济文化不能满足人民需要状况之间的矛盾，为党确立发展生产力的根本任务，制定以经济建设为中心的基本路线，提供了理论基础。他还提出正确区分敌我矛盾和人民内部两类不同性质矛盾的理论，指明要用正确处理人民内部矛盾的方法来处理经济工作中的各种矛盾来促进经济的发展。

Third, the theory of socialist economic relations. On the one hand, regarding the path of China’s industrialisation, Mao Zedong, based on the experience of focusing on the development of heavy industry during the “First Five-Year Plan” period, [12]12 The “First Five-Year Plan” (1953–1957) was the first centralised economic development plan of the People’s Republic of China, focusing on heavy industry and the construction of key industrial projects, many with Soviet assistance. put forward the general policy of “taking agriculture as the foundation, industry as the leading factor, and developing the national economy in the order of agriculture, light industry, and heavy industry,” emphasising that the development of industry should go hand in hand with the development of agriculture, using the method of developing more agriculture and light industry to develop heavy industry, while simultaneously ensuring balanced and coordinated development between coastal and inland industries. On the other hand, regarding the relationships between the central and local authorities, and between the state, the collective, and the individual, he proposed that overall consideration must be given to all parties, opposing both egalitarianism and excessive centralisation, while also handling the relationships between economic construction and national defence construction, between self-reliance and learning from foreign countries, and between the economic development of the Han nationality and that of ethnic minority regions.

三是社会主义经济关系理论。一方面，关于中国工业化发展道路，毛泽东在总结“一五”时期重点发展重工业经验的基础上，提出了“以农业为基础，工业为主导，按农轻重次序发展国民经济”总方针，强调发展工业要和发展农业并举，用多发展一些农业和轻工业的办法来发展重工业，同时沿海与内地工业要平衡、协调发展；另一方面，在中央和地方，国家、集体、个人的关系上，他提出必须统筹兼顾，既要反对平均主义，又要反对过分集中，同时处理好经济建设和国防建设、自力更生和学习国外、汉族和少数民族地区经济发展的关系。

Fourth, the thought on socialist commodity economy. Existing research has reached the following conclusions:

四是社会主义商品经济思想。既有研究得出以下论断：

Regarding whether a socialist country needs to develop a commodity economy. Mao Zedong believed that for a considerable period within socialist society, not only should commodity production not be prohibited, but it should be vigorously developed; developing commodity production and commodity exchange was to adapt to the underdeveloped state of social productive forces and was an objective requirement serving socialism.

关于社会主义国家是否需要发展商品经济。毛泽东认为，社会主义社会相当长时期内不仅不能禁止而且要大力发展商品生产，发展商品生产和商品交换是为了适应不发达的社会生产力状况，是为社会主义服务的客观要求。

Regarding the distinction between a socialist commodity economy and a capitalist commodity economy. Mao Zedong emphasised that a socialist commodity economy is a planned, proportionate, and balanced development of commodity production and commodity exchange based on socialist public ownership, and that developing a commodity economy under socialist conditions would not lead to capitalism.

关于社会主义商品经济与资本主义商品经济的区别。毛泽东强调，社会主义商品经济是在社会主义公有制基础上的有计划、按比例、平衡发展的商品生产和商品交换，在社会主义条件下发展商品经济不会导致资本主义。

Regarding the law of value in a commodity economy. Mao Zedong acknowledged and proposed that all economic units should study, follow, and utilise the law of value as a tool for economic accounting, in order to continuously improve management and operational work.

关于商品经济价值规律。毛泽东承认并提出所有经济单位都要学习、遵循和利用价值规律，作为经济核算的工具，以便不断改善经营和管理工作。

Regarding when a commodity economy in a socialist country would wither away. Mao Zedong pointed out that only when all means of production are owned by the state, and only when social products are greatly abundant and the central organisation has the power to allocate all products, would it be possible for the commodity economy to become unnecessary and thus disappear. Otherwise, even if there were a transition to a single socialist ownership by the whole people, if the productive forces were underdeveloped and products were not very abundant, or as long as it was not a single socialist ownership by the whole people, the commodity economy would not wither away.

关于社会主义国家商品经济何时会消亡。毛泽东指出，只有当一切生产资料归国家所有，只有当社会产品大为丰富且中央组织有权支配一切产品的时候，才有可能使商品经济不必要而致消失。否则，即使过渡到单一的社会主义全民所有制，如果生产力不发达，产品不很丰富，或者只要不是单一的社会主义全民所有制，商品经济都不会消亡。

Regarding the issue of ownership of the means of production in a socialist country. Mao Zedong proposed that some means of production are also commodities; after the state sells some means of production to the people’s communes, the communes can transfer ownership of these products among themselves. At the same time, individual commune members could possess certain private plots and means of production for household sideline occupations.

关于社会主义国家生产资料所有权问题。毛泽东提出，部分生产资料也是商品，国家把部分生产资料卖给人民公社后，公社与公社之间可以转让这些产品所有权。同时，社员个人能够占有一定的自留地和从事家庭副业的生产资料。

Under the guidance of Mao Zedong’s theory of socialist economic construction, during the 1950s and 1960s, China implemented and carried out a series of policies and guidelines for socialist economic construction, achieving the great pioneering feat of concentrating forces to accelerate the building of an independent industrial system and a complete national economic system. On the one hand, based on the industrial layout framework established during the “First Five-Year Plan” period, Mao Zedong set the goal of building an independent, relatively complete industrial system and national economic system within 15 years, through several five-year plans, by around 1980. By the late 1970s, China had basically built an independent industrial system with a complete range of sectors. On the other hand, with the construction of an independent industrial system as the core, it drove and supported the construction of a complete national economic system. First, developing agriculture ensured the supply of food for urban and rural residents, providing raw materials and capital accumulation for industrial development; second, industry supported agriculture, by sending agricultural means of production such as chemical fertilisers, pesticides, and agricultural machinery to the countryside, raising the level of agricultural mechanisation and productivity, and by strengthening the construction of farmland and water conservancy facilities, improving the agricultural production environment; third, through industrialisation construction, it promoted the development of commerce and finance, transportation and posts and telecommunications, national defence science and technology, and military industry, facilitating the completion of the national economic system.

在毛泽东社会主义经济建设理论指导下，20世纪50至60年代，我国贯彻、落实社会主义经济建设的系列方针、政策，实现了集中力量加快建成独立自主的工业体系和完备的国民经济体系的伟大创举。一方面，在“一五”期间搭建的工业布局框架基础上，毛泽东确定了用15年时间，经过几个五年计划，在1980年前建成一个独立的比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系。至20世纪70年代后期，我国基本建成了门类齐全的独立工业体系。另一方面，以独立自主的工业体系建设为核心，带动、支撑完整的国民经济体系建设。一则发展农业保障城乡居民食品供应，为工业发展提供原材料和资金积累；二则工业反哺农业，通过化肥、农药、农用机械等农用生产资料下乡，提高农业机械化水平和生产力，通过加强农田水利设施建设，改善农业生产环境；三则通过工业化建设推动商业与金融、交通运输与邮电、国防科技和军工等领域的发展，促进国民经济体系建成。

In summary, from the period of the New Democratic Revolution through the socialist transition period to the period of comprehensive socialist construction, Mao Zedong’s economic thought forms a closely linked and coherent whole. It encompasses both his theoretical conception of China’s economic development goals and the specific steps, guidelines, and measures for achieving those goals. This thought runs through Mao’s arduous exploration of the Chinese revolutionary path and of socialist revolution and construction. It is also the important intellectual achievement of Mao, standing at an overall strategic height in each historical period, focusing on studying, resolving, leading, and realizing how, at the economic level, China could step by step transform from a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society into a New Democratic society, then from a New Democratic society into a socialist society, and how to vigorously promote socialist economic modernization. Looking at the core thrust and strategic essentials of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, the following distinctive features emerge: first, continuously advancing changes in China’s economic system and economic and social development in the course of revolution and construction; second, taking the liberation and development of productive forces as the fundamental historical mission; third, taking the realization of the fundamental interests of the people as the fundamental value goal; fourth, taking the transformation of relations of production and the superstructure as the basic path; fifth, taking the path of industrialization, catching up and surpassing, war preparedness, and opening to the outside world as the main strategic measures. Although there were gaps between some theoretical conceptions and policy implementation, there is no doubt that under the guidance of this thought, China successfully completed the fundamental transformation from a semi-colonial and semi-feudal economic system to a socialist economic system, began large-scale economic construction, and achieved tremendous accomplishments.

综上可见，从新民主主义革命时期到社会主义过渡时期，再到全面建设社会主义时期，毛泽东经济思想是紧密衔接、一脉相承的整体，既包含了他对中国经济发展目标的理论构想，也有如何实现目标的具体步骤、方针和举措，贯穿于毛泽东对中国革命道路和社会主义革命、建设道路的艰辛探索中，亦是毛泽东站在各个历史时期全局性的战略高度，着力研究、解决、领导和实现如何在经济层面使中国一步步从半殖民地半封建社会转变为新民主主义社会，继而从新民主主义社会转变为社会主义社会，及如何大力推进社会主义经济现代化的重要思想成果。纵观毛泽东经济思想的核心主旨和战略要义，呈现出如下鲜明特征：一是在革命和建设进程中不断推进中国经济体系变革和经济社会发展；二是将解放和发展生产力作为根本历史使命；三是将实现民众根本利益作为根本价值目标；四是将变革生产关系和上层建筑作为基本路径；五是将走工业化道路、赶超、备战、对外开放作为主要战略举措。尽管其中有的理论构想与政策落地存在差距，但毋庸置疑的是，在这一思想指引下，中国胜利完成了从半殖民地半封建经济制度到社会主义经济制度的根本变革，开始了大规模经济建设并取得了巨大成就。

III. Research on Practical Achievements under the Guidance of Mao Zedong’s Economic Thought

三、毛泽东经济思想指导下实践成就研究

“Practice is the sole criterion for testing truth.” [13]13 A slogan from the late 1970s that became the theoretical justification for the reform and opening-up policy, associated with the “practice criterion” debate. To gain a more comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the historical value and contemporary significance of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, it is necessary to correctly and objectively assess the achievements of China’s economic transformation and construction under the guidance of this ideological system, especially the achievements of China’s economic revolution and construction during the Mao era. In this regard, scholars point out that the most notable economic revolutionary and construction achievement of the New Democratic Revolution was that the Chinese Communists, with Comrade Mao Zedong as their main representative, put forward economic guidelines and policies suited to the actual conditions of the time during the Agrarian Revolutionary War, the War of Resistance Against Japan, and the War of Liberation. In particular, they dynamically and scientifically carried out the agrarian revolution in response to changes in the situation and tasks, laying important economic and social conditions for winning national independence and the liberation of the people. On the one hand, through the agrarian revolution, the feudal landlord system of land ownership was transformed into peasant land ownership, solving the peasant land problem, enabling the broad masses of peasants to stand up and become masters, and greatly liberating rural productive forces. On the other hand, whether the land problem was solved well or not was the key to winning people’s support. Mao linked the land problem with the future of the Chinese revolution, thereby enabling the Chinese Communist Party to gain enormous revolutionary resources, consolidate the power of the red revolutionary base areas, and win strong support from the common people for the revolutionary war, ultimately leading to the establishment of New China.

“实践是检验真理的唯一标准”。更为全面、深入的认知毛泽东经济思想的历史价值和现实意义，需要正确、客观评估该思想体系指导下我国经济变革与建设取得的成就，尤其是毛泽东时代中国经济革命与建设成就。对此，论者指出，新民主主义革命最为显著的经济革命与建设成就，就是以毛泽东同志为主要代表的中国共产党人，在土地革命战争、抗日战争和解放战争期间，提出了符合当时实际的经济方针与政策，特别是顺应形势和任务需要，动态而科学地开展土地革命，为争取民族独立、人民解放奠定了重要的经济社会条件。一方面，经过土地革命，变封建地主土地所有制为农民土地所有制，解决了农民土地问题，使广大农民群众翻身做主人，大大解放了农村生产力；另一方面，解决土地问题好坏与否是能否赢得人民支持的关键，毛泽东将土地问题与中国革命前途联系起来，使中国共产党由此获得巨大革命资源，巩固了红色革命根据地政权，革命战争得到老百姓大力支援，最终建立了新中国。

Regarding the achievements of socialist economic revolution and construction during the Mao era, this is a hot topic in academic research and an important basis for correctly understanding the relationship between the two historical periods before and after reform and opening up. As the American scholar Maurice Meisner stated, “If one does not correctly evaluate the basic economic fact of the astonishing achievements made during the Mao era in transforming China from one of the world’s most backward agricultural countries into the world’s sixth largest industrial power by the mid-1970s, one cannot understand the reforms that dominated the post-Mao period.” [14]14 Maurice Meisner, *Mao’s China and After: A History of the People’s Republic* (New York: Free Press, 1999), p. 413. (Paraphrased by the author.) Maurice Meisner described the typical features of China’s economic landscape during Mao’s tenure as follows: on the one hand, in an era of the most meager material resources, a hostile international environment, and minimal foreign aid, it took a quarter of a century, through an astonishingly rapid process of industrialization, to transform China from a completely agricultural country into an industrial country, laying the fundamental foundation for China’s modern economic development. On the other hand, in a more equitable manner, it provided the Chinese people with basic living guarantees and welfare benefits such as food, clothing, housing, medical care, and funeral expenses. This reflects the three dimensions of the achievements of New China’s economic construction under the guidance of Mao Zedong’s economic thought.

关于毛泽东时代所取得的社会主义经济革命与建设成就，是学界研究的热点，也是正确理解改革开放前后两个历史时期关系的重要依据。亦如美国学者莫里斯·迈斯纳所言，“如果不去正确地评价毛泽东时代把中国从世界上最落后的农业国之一变成到二十世纪七十年代中期为止世界第六大工业强国过程中取得的惊人成就这个基本的经济事实，就无法理解在毛泽东之后时期占支配地位的改革”。莫里斯·迈斯纳将毛泽东当政期间中国经济样貌的典型特征呈述为：一方面，在一个物质资源最贫乏，国际环境充满敌意和极少外援的年代，用了1/4世纪的时间，以令人惊异的高速工业化过程，把中国从一个完全的农业国变成了工业国，为中国现代化经济发展奠定了根本基础。另一方面，以更为公平的方式，让中国老百姓获得了食品、衣物、住房、医疗保健以及丧葬费用这些基本生活保障和福利待遇。由此映射出毛泽东经济思想指导下新中国经济建设所取得成就的三重维度。

First, it established the basic socialist economic system based on public ownership and distribution according to work, laying the fundamental institutional foundation for China’s economic construction and development, and also creating the economic system conditions for reform and opening up and socialist modernization.

第一，确立了以公有制、按劳分配等为基础的社会主义基本经济制度，为中国经济建设和发展奠定了根本制度基础，也为改革开放和社会主义现代化建设创造了经济制度条件。

With the completion of the socialist transformation task in 1956, China achieved a profound transformation of the ownership of the means of production, comprehensively establishing socialist public ownership. At the same time, a highly centralized planned economic system, in which the state used economic plans to guide the development of the national economy, was gradually established. Although the single public ownership system and the planned economic system had drawbacks and defects, academic research results show that this economic system made significant contributions and had great importance in New China’s economic construction.

随着1956年社会主义改造任务的完成，我国实现了生产资料所有制的深刻变革，全面确立了社会主义公有制，同时国家用经济计划指导国民经济发展的高度集中的计划经济体制亦逐渐建立。尽管单一公有制和计划经济体制存在弊端和缺陷，但学界研究成果表明，该经济制度在新中国经济建设中作出了重大贡献，具有重要意义。

For New China’s economic development before reform and opening up, implementing the economic system of “public ownership + mandatory planned management + distribution according to work” was a choice dictated by China’s economic base, development requirements, and international environment at the time. In the impoverished and weak state of early New China, only by establishing socialist public ownership and implementing a planned economic system could the state ensure it had strong resource mobilization and allocation capabilities, give play to the institutional superiority of national organizational strength and concentrating resources to accomplish large undertakings, and, while guaranteeing the basic living needs of the broad masses, implement an industrialization strategy, especially prioritizing the development of heavy industry centered on the defense industry, thereby breaking out of the “poverty trap,” responding to international threats, and safeguarding national independence and security. Practice has fully proven that it was precisely under the socialist public ownership and planned economic system that New China acquired relatively strong state capacity, and social organization reached an unprecedented level in history. Only in this way could China rely on itself to rapidly accumulate large-scale capital, and after more than twenty years of industrialization construction, on the basis of the “poor and blank” [15]15 A phrase used by Mao Zedong to describe China’s economic backwardness, meaning “poor” in material terms and “blank” like a blank sheet of paper on which to write the newest and most beautiful words. legacy left by old China, establish an independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system, providing a guarantee for national security, support for improving people’s livelihoods, and a solid material foundation for subsequent rapid economic development. As a group of experts in history, sociology, and economics from Stanford University, Harvard University, and the University of Pennsylvania in the United States have acknowledged, since 1949, the Chinese people have made achievements in economic development that no other country has ever made — “they have transitioned from a highly decentralized, family-based foundation of coordination and control to a foundation capable of coordination on a much larger scale, and to a certain concept of taking the Chinese entity as a whole for examination.” [16]16 This appears to be a composite or paraphrased reference to Western scholarly assessments of China’s economic transformation; the exact source is not identified in the original text.

对于改革开放前新中国经济发展而言，实行“公有制+指令性计划管理+按劳分配”经济制度是当时中国经济基础、发展要求和国际环境下的选择。在新中国初期积贫积弱状态下，只有建立社会主义公有制，实行计划经济体制，才能确保国家拥有强大资源动员和配置能力，能够发挥国家组织力和集中力量办大事的制度优越性，在保障广大人民基本生活需求的同时，推行工业化战略，特别是优先发展以国防工业为中心的重工业，从而突破“贫困化陷阱”，应对国际威胁，捍卫国家独立与安全。实践充分证明，正是在社会主义公有制、计划经济体制下，新中国具有了较强大的国家能力，社会组织化达到了历史空前程度。如此我国才得以依靠自身迅速积累大规模资本，经过二十多年的工业化建设，在旧中国遗留下来的“一穷二白”基础上，建立起独立的比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系，为国家安全提供了保障，为改善民生提供了支撑，也为此后经济高速发展奠定了坚实物质基础。正如美国斯坦福大学、哈佛大学、宾夕法尼亚大学的一批历史、社会、经济学专家都承认的，自1949年以来，中国人在经济发展中作出了其他国家从来没有作出过的成绩——“他们已从高度分散的、和以家庭为本的协调和控制的基础，过渡到能在大得多的程度上进行协调的基础，和倾向于把中国这个实体作为整体来考察的某种概念的基础”。

For New China’s economic development after reform and opening up, this institutional system also laid the foundation for the emergence and development of the socialist economic system with Chinese characteristics. On the one hand, although the basic economic system for the primary stage of socialism in China no longer implements a single form of socialist public ownership, adhering to the dominance of public ownership, strengthening the foundation of the public sector of the economy and the system of distribution according to work, are the basic features of the socialist property rights and distribution system with Chinese characteristics, the fundamental guarantee for China’s adherence to the socialist direction of economic system reform, and the institutional guarantee for firmly holding the assets of important industries related to the national economy and people’s livelihoods in the hands of the state and the entire people. On the other hand, the economic entities built under the planned economic system laid a solid foundation for the development of the socialist market economy. A large number of state-owned enterprises, through restructuring and reorganization, were transformed into the leading force in the construction of the socialist market economy, providing key, powerful, and decisive support for the rapid development of the non-public economy. The system of collective ownership of rural land also created conditions for subsequent rural reforms such as the implementation of the household contract responsibility system, and the “separation of three rights” [17]17 A policy reform in rural China that separates land ownership (collective), contract rights (households), and management rights (which can be transferred to others), aiming to increase agricultural efficiency. of ownership, contract rights, and management rights during reform and opening up.

对于改革开放后新中国经济发展而言，该制度体系还为中国特色社会主义经济体制的产生发展奠定了基础。一方面，虽然我国社会主义初级阶段基本经济制度不再实行单一社会主义公有制，但是坚持公有制为主体，坚持壮大公有制经济基础和按劳分配制度，是中国特色社会主义产权和分配制度的基本特征，是我国坚持经济体制改革社会主义发展方向的根本保证，是将关系国计民生的重要行业资产牢牢掌握在国家和全民手中的制度保障。另一方面，计划经济体制下建设起来的经济主体，为社会主义市场经济的发展奠定了坚实基础。大批国有企业通过改组改制，转型成为社会主义市场经济建设的主导力量，为非公经济快速发展提供了关键、有力且决定性支持。农村土地集体所有制也为改革开放实行家庭联产承包，所有权、承包权和经营权“三权分置”等后续农村改革创造了条件。

Second, the gradual establishment of an independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system laid the material foundation and technical support for New China’s economic independence, national defense security, and improvement of people’s livelihood conditions, and also laid a solid industrial economic foundation for the takeoff of the national economy and the substantial improvement of urban and rural people’s living standards after reform and opening up.

第二，逐步建立起独立的比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系，为新中国经济独立、国防安全、改善民生条件奠定了物质基础和技术支撑，也为改革开放后国民经济腾飞和城乡人民生活水平大幅提高，奠定了坚实的工业经济基础。

In this regard, academic research has utilized a large amount of statistical data to conduct qualitative research on the glorious course, major achievements, and important significance of the creation and development of New China’s modern industrial system.

对此，学界研究利用大量统计数据，对新中国现代工业体系创立和发展的光辉历程、重大成就及其重要意义作了定性研究。

Regarding its glorious course, commentators divide the thread of New China’s industrial system creation into one “three-year recovery period” and four “Five-Year Plan” foundation-laying periods. From 1949 to 1952, our country, by establishing the dominant position of the socialist state-owned economy, actively supported and guided various industrial economic components to restore and develop production under the leadership of the state-owned economy, laying the foundation for promoting socialist transformation and building a modern industrial system; from 1953 to 1957, China implemented socialist transformation and the “First Five-Year Plan” simultaneously, focusing on developing heavy industry, concentrating efforts on completing Soviet-aided projects, and gradually building a number of basic industrial projects with relatively complete categories, thereby laying the prototype of China’s modern industrial system; from 1958 to 1965, during the “Second Five-Year Plan” period, China created a large number of industrial technological innovation achievements, initially establishing New China’s modern industrial system; through the ten years of the “Third Five-Year Plan” and “Fourth Five-Year Plan” from 1966 to 1976, with national defense construction as the center, building the “Third Front” industrial system, promoting the construction of strategic rear industrial bases with relatively complete industrial sectors in the interior and central-western regions, basically completing New China’s modern industrial system. [18]18 The “Third Front” (三线) was a massive industrial relocation and construction program initiated by Mao Zedong in the mid-1960s, moving key defense and heavy industries from coastal and border regions to China’s interior provinces (Sichuan, Guizhou, Shaanxi, etc.) to protect them from potential Soviet or American attack.

就其光辉历程而言，论者将新中国工业体系创建的脉络划分为1个“三年恢复期”和4个“五年计划”奠基期。1949—1952年，我们国家通过确立社会主义国营经济主导地位，积极扶持并引导各种工业经济成分在国营经济领导下恢复和发展生产，为推进社会主义改造和建设现代工业体系打下基础；1953—1957年，我国实行社会主义改造和“一五”计划并举，以发展重工业为重点，集中力量做好苏联援建工程，逐步建成一批门类较齐全的基础工业项目，从而奠定了我国现代化工业体系雏形；1958—1965年，我国于“二五”计划期间创造出一大批工业技术革新成果，初步建立起新中国现代工业体系；经1966—1976年的“三五”计划和“四五”计划十年，以国防建设为中心，建设“三线”工业体系，推动内地、中西部地区建成工业部门比较齐全的战略后方工业基地，基本建成新中国现代工业体系。

Its major achievements are prominently manifested in the enhancement of industrial and agricultural production capacity and the growth of total economic output value. China in the Mao era built a self-contained, self-sustaining industrialized economic system capable of independently producing a variety of materials, machinery and equipment, and various products, with the average annual growth rate of total industrial and agricultural output value ranking among the highest in the world, to meet the needs of social expanded reproduction and national economic and technological transformation, to meet the needs of continuously improving people’s living standards, and to meet the needs of national defense modernization and national security.

其重大成就突出表现在工农业生产能力的增强与经济总产值的增长。毛泽东时代的中国建成了一个自为一体的、可以自我维持的工业化经济体系，可以自主生产多种材料、机器设备和多种产品，工农业生产总值年均增长率居世界前列，以满足社会扩大再生产和国家经济技术改造的需要，满足人民生活水平不断提高的需要，满足国防现代化和国家安全的需要。

First, during the “First Five-Year Plan” period, a relatively complete framework for basic industries and the national defense industry was established. The self-sufficiency rate of machinery industry equipment increased from about 20% before the founding of New China to over 60%; China acquired manufacturing systems with relatively complete categories in dozens of industries, including trucks, blast furnaces, open-hearth furnace manufacturing equipment, steam turbine power generation equipment, tractors, precision instruments, petroleum machinery, and telecommunications equipment; basic industrial sectors, especially the steel industry, were greatly strengthened, with steel output increasing at an average annual rate of 32%, steel varieties reaching over 4,000 types, and the steel self-sufficiency rate reaching 86%; light industries such as textiles and papermaking basically met demand; production of heavy weaponry began, and a modern ordnance industry with complete categories and specialized supporting facilities was initially established.

首先，“一五”期间建立起比较完整的基础工业和国防工业体系框架。机械工业设备自给率从新中国成立前的20%左右提高到60%多，中国有了载重汽车、高炉、平炉制造设备、汽轮发电设备、拖拉机、精密仪表、石油机械和电讯设备等几十个行业比较齐全的制造系统；基础工业部门尤其钢铁工业得到大大加强，钢产量年均递增32%，钢材品种达4000余种，钢材自给率达86%；纺织、造纸等轻工业基本能满足需要；开始生产重型武器装备，初步建立门类齐全、专业配套的现代兵工业。

Second, during the ten-year period of comprehensive socialist construction including the “Second Five-Year Plan,” many emerging industrial sectors and cutting-edge national defense technologies laid their foundation during this period. Emerging industries such as the electronics industry, atomic energy industry, and aerospace industry developed from nothing, from small to large. In 1965, the first atomic bomb was successfully detonated; the machinery industry formed a complete industry system including metallurgy, mining, power stations, petrochemical industry equipment manufacturing, and aircraft, automobiles, and engineering machinery, with the self-sufficiency rate of major mechanical equipment reaching over 90%; textile machinery not only fully met domestic needs but also began to provide complete sets of equipment to many countries; a number of large and medium-sized steel bases such as Wuhan and Baotou were built; the output of major industrial products grew enormously; compared with 1956, in 1966, steel, coal, petroleum, electricity generation, and machine tools increased by 245%, 129.9%, 1154%, 397%, and 112% respectively; the power industry basically achieved nationwide grid interconnection; the petroleum industry achieved complete self-sufficiency; a large number of farmland and water conservancy facilities were built. The area of irrigated land increased by over 26 million mu, [19]19 Mu (亩) is a Chinese unit of land area; 1 mu ≈ 0.067 hectares or 0.165 acres. the number of tractors owned and the amount of chemical fertilizer used increased more than sixfold, and the area of mechanized plowing increased from 2.4% in 1957 to 15% in 1965.

其次，包括“二五”在内的十年全面建设社会主义时期，许多新兴工业部门和国防尖端技术在这个时期打下基础。电子工业、原子能工业、航天工业等新兴工业，从无到有，从小到大逐步发展起来。1965年成功爆炸第一颗原子弹；机械工业形成了包括冶金、采矿、电站、石化工业设备制造和飞机、汽车、工程机械在内的门类齐全的行业体系，主要机械设备自给率达到90%以上，纺织机械不仅能够完全满足国内需要，而且开始向许多国家提供成套设备；建设起武汉、包头等一批大中型钢铁基地，主要工业品产量有了巨大增长，1966年同1956年相比，钢铁、煤炭、石油、发电量、机床分别增长了245%、129.9%、1154%、397%和112%，电力工业基本上实现了全国联网，石油工业实现完全自给；兴建了大量农田水利设施。水浇地面积增加2600多万亩，拖拉机拥有量和化肥用量增长6倍以上，机耕面积由1957年的2.4%提高到1965年的15%。

Third, during the ten-year period of the “Third Five-Year Plan” and “Fourth Five-Year Plan,” considerable achievements were still made in industrial construction. The construction of an industrial system with relatively complete categories in the interior was promoted; from 1952 to 1978, the total industrial output value of the interior increased from 10.5 billion yuan to 165.6 billion yuan, a 15-fold increase; the share of major industrial products produced in the interior, raw coal increased from 56.1% to 68%, electricity generation from 36.4% to 48.6%, steel from 14.2% to 37.2%; the petroleum industry developed rapidly, with three major crude oil industrial bases—Daqing, Shengli, and Dagang—built, a large number of petrochemical and chemical fiber enterprises completed and put into operation, and a large number of machinery factories completed and put into operation, enabling China to achieve significant progress in the production of mining equipment, metallurgical equipment, bearings, automobiles, aircraft, and shipbuilding; the world-renowned “two bombs, one satellite” (missile and hydrogen bomb, artificial earth satellite) were successfully launched; industrial and agricultural output value maintained a fairly fast growth rate; from 1966 to 1976, total industrial and agricultural output value grew at an average annual rate of 7.1%, total industrial output value at an average annual rate of 8.5%, net industrial output value at an average annual rate of 7.2%, total energy production at an average annual rate of 9.2%, steel output at an average annual rate of 2.9%, cloth output at an average annual rate of 1.9%; the successful trial and promotion of hybrid indica rice increased unit yield by 20%.

再次，“三五”“四五”十年时期在工业建设方面仍取得了不小成绩。推动内地建成门类比较齐全的工业体系，1952—1978年，内地工业总产值从105亿元增长至1656亿元，增长15倍，内地主要工业品产量所占比重，原煤从56.1%增至68%，发电从36.4%增至48.6%，钢从14.2%增至37.2%；石油工业发展迅猛，建成大庆、胜利、大港三大原油工业基地，一大批石油化工及化纤企业建成投产，一大批机械厂建成投产，使我国在矿山设备、冶金设备、轴承、汽车、飞机、船舶制造生产方面取得长足发展；举世瞩目的“两弹一星”（导弹和氢弹、人造地球卫星）发射成功；工农业产值保持相当快的增长速度，1966—1976年，工农业总产值年均增长7.1％，工业总产值年均递增8.5%，工业净产值年均递增7.2%，能源生产总量年均递增9.2%，钢产量年均递增2.9%，布产量年均递增1.9%，籼型杂交水稻试验成功和推广，将单位产量提高了20%。

Regarding its important significance. On the one hand, the establishment of an independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system effectively enhanced New China’s comprehensive national power, enabling the ancient China to stand tall in the East with a new great-power image. First, national defense and military strength were greatly strengthened, effectively resisting the aggressive ambitions of Western hostile forces, consolidating national defense security, and laying an important foundation for winning a peaceful development environment; second, it supported the independent and stable development of the national economy, ensuring that China was not constrained in the face of international conflicts and threats; third, the improvement of agricultural mechanization and the development of the chemical industry directly promoted the increase in the output of agricultural and sideline food products, initially meeting the basic living needs of one-quarter of the world’s population; fourth, it cultivated a large number of scientific and technological talents and industrial workers with a certain level of cultural knowledge and technical skills, providing important technical strength for the development of New China.

就其重要意义而言。一方面，独立的比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系的建立，有力增强了新中国综合国力，使古老的中国以崭新的大国面貌屹立在世界东方。一则，国防军事力量大大加强，能够有效抗击西方敌对势力的侵略野心，稳固国防安全，为赢得和平发展环境奠定重要基础；二则，支撑起国民经济自主稳定的发展，保障我国在面对国际冲突和威胁中不受挟制；三则，农业机械化程度的提高和化学工业的发展，直接促进了农副食品产量的增加，初步满足了占世界1/4人口的基本生活需求；四则，培养出大批科技人才和有一定文化知识和技术水平的产业工人，为新中国的发展提供重要的技术力量。

On the other hand, the establishment of an independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system laid a solid material foundation for the growth effect of the national economy showing accumulated strength after reform and opening up, and for the steady improvement of the people’s living standards. First, the relatively complete supporting industrial manufacturing system provided basic production capacity for the technological innovation, industrial upgrading, and enhancement of the international competitiveness of industrial products after reform and opening up, thereby enabling China to gradually grow into the world’s largest industrial and manufacturing country; second, agricultural mechanization construction and complete chemical industry chain support contributed greatly to accelerating the promotion of agricultural modernization after reform and opening up, ensuring the stability of grain production and increasing agricultural output and efficiency; third, relatively complete basic industrial supporting facilities, including public infrastructure construction such as water, electricity, gas, railways, highways, ships, ports, docks, and civil aviation, developed synchronously with the manufacturing industry, providing basic conditions for attracting investment, absorbing a large number of employed personnel, accelerating China’s industrialization process, and improving economic efficiency after reform and opening up; fourth, on the basis of possessing production capacity in various industries, along with the shift from a planned to a market-led mechanism brought about by reform and opening up, the original shortage economy was gradually changed, providing a rich variety of consumer goods for improving people’s livelihood, including all aspects of life such as food, clothing, use, housing, and transportation; the people’s living standards gradually moved from subsistence to moderate prosperity.

另一方面，独立而比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系的建立，为改革开放后国民经济发展呈现出厚积薄发的增长效应，为老百姓生活水平的蒸蒸日上奠定坚实物质基础。一则，比较完整的配套工业制造体系，为改革开放后制造业的技术革新、产业升级、工业产品国际竞争力的增强，从而使我国逐步成长为全球第一大工业国和制造业国家，提供了基本生产能力；二则，农业机械化建设、完整化工产业链支持，为改革开放后加速推进农业现代化，保证粮食生产的稳定及农业增产、增效贡献巨大；三则，比较完整的工业基础配套设施，包括水、电、气、铁路、公路、轮船、港口、码头、民航等公共基础设施建设，与制造工业设施同步发展起来，为改革开放后招商引资、吸纳大量就业人员，加快我国工业化进程，提升经济效益，配备了基础条件；四则，在具备各类产业生产能力基础上，伴随改革开放带来的从计划向市场主导机制的转换，逐步改变了原本短缺经济状态，为改善民生，包括吃穿用住行各方面的生活，提供了丰富多样的消费品，老百姓的生活水平逐步由温饱走向小康。

Third, in practice, Mao Zedong always firmly grasped the theme of seeking benefits for the people and achieving a strong country and prosperous people. With the development of economic construction, the material and cultural living standards and spiritual outlook of the broad masses of the people gradually improved significantly.

第三，毛泽东在实践中，始终牢牢把握住为人民谋利益，实现国强民富这一主题。随着经济建设事业的发展，广大人民群众的物质生活、文化生活水平及精神面貌逐步得到极大改善。

On the one hand, Mao emphasized that developing the economy must rely on the masses, mobilize the masses, and use methods of organizing the masses to create more material and spiritual wealth. To this end, he focused on reforming the relations of production, enabling the masses to achieve a political and social status as masters of their own affairs—in the countryside, encouraging and assisting the vast number of peasants to develop cooperative undertakings after obtaining land; in the cities, establishing the status of workers’ participation in enterprise production and management. This, while safeguarding the people’s rights, fully mobilized the masses’ enthusiasm for production and effectively promoted the development of productive forces. Therefore, during the revolutionary era, Mao successfully led the Great Production Movement [20]20 The Great Production Movement was a campaign launched by the Chinese Communist Party in the 1940s in the Yan’an base areas to achieve economic self-sufficiency by mobilizing Party members, soldiers, and civilians to engage in agriculture, industry, and other productive activities. in the revolutionary base areas, and after the founding of the People’s Republic of China, he organized several hundred million people to begin comprehensive socialist construction.

一方面，毛泽东强调，发展经济必须依靠人民群众，发动人民群众，用组织人民群众的方法，创造出更多的物质和精神财富。为此，他注重改革生产关系，让人民群众获得当家作主的政治社会地位——在农村鼓励和扶助广大农民分得土地后发展合作事业——在城市确立广大职工参与企业生产管理的地位，从而在保障人民权利的同时，充分调动起人民群众的生产积极性，有力促进了生产力发展。因此，革命年代，毛泽东成功领导了革命根据地的大生产运动，中华人民共和国成立后，他又把几亿人民组织起来，开始全面社会主义建设。

On the other hand, Mao always regarded meeting the living needs of the masses as the fundamental purpose of economic development. Although the entire nation practiced austerity to support New China’s industrial construction, resulting in only modest increases in living standards, in line with the goal of economic construction being “taken from the people and used for the people,” the social welfare of the Mao era was fundamentally improved. A modern social security system covering grain, employment, housing, education, medical care, and other fields was established, and the people’s sense of life security and happiness reached unprecedented heights. This is mainly reflected in the following: from 1949 to 1976, the national total population increased from over 500 million to over 900 million, and per capita grain possession rose from 418 jin to 615 jin, with the increased grain allowing the per capita grain possession of over 900 million people to be nearly 200 jin higher than when the population was over 500 million; from 1952 to 1976, the per capita consumption level of national residents increased from 62 yuan to 125 yuan for peasants and from 148 yuan to 340 yuan for urban residents; from 1949 to 1976, the development of cultural and educational undertakings greatly improved the cultural quality of the masses, with the enrollment rate of school-age children reaching over 90%, primary school students increasing from 24.39 million to 150 million, secondary school students increasing from 1.039 million to 58.365 million, and higher education students increasing from 117,000 to 674,000; from 1949 to 1976, the number of hospitals nationwide increased from 2,600 to 63,000, a three-tier medical and health system at the county, district, and production brigade levels was universally established in rural areas, the national population mortality rate dropped from 20‰ to 7.25‰, and the average life expectancy of residents rose from 35 to 53 years. In this regard, as the American economist Paul Samuelson stated, “It provided everyone with food, clothing, and housing, kept them healthy, and enabled the vast majority to receive an education. Hundreds of millions did not go hungry, and there were no groups of drowsy, illiterate beggars along the roadsides and streets. Hundreds of millions did not suffer from disease. In this respect, China’s achievements surpass those of any other underdeveloped country in the world.”

另一方面，毛泽东始终把满足人民群众生活需要作为发展经济的根本目的。尽管为了新中国工业建设，全国人民节衣缩食，生活水平增幅不大，但本着经济建设“取之于民、用之于民”的目标，毛泽东时代的社会民生得到了根本改善，建立起涵盖粮食、就业、住房、教育、医疗卫生等多领域的现代社会保障体系，人民群众的生活安全感和幸福感空前高涨。主要表现在：从1949—1976年，全国总人口从5亿多增至9亿多，粮食人均占有量从418斤增加到615斤，增产的粮食使9亿多人的人均占有粮比5亿多人时增加了近200斤；从1952—1976年，全国居民人均消费水平，农民从62元增加到125元，城市居民从148元增加到340元；从1949—1976年，文化教育事业的发展极大提高了人民群众的文化素质，学龄儿童入学率达到90%以上，小学在校生从2439万人发展到1.5亿人，中学在校生从103.9万人发展到5836.5万人，高等学校在校生从11.7万人发展到67.4万人；从1949—1976年，全国医院从2600家发展到6.3万家，农村普遍建立县、区、生产大队三级医疗卫生机构，全国人口死亡率从20‰下降到7.25‰，居民平均寿命从35岁提高至53岁。对此，诚如美国经济学家萨缪尔森所言，“它向每一个人提供了粮食、衣服和住房，使他们保持健康，并使绝大多数人获得了教育，千百万人并没有挨饿，道路旁边和街路上没有一群群昏昏欲睡、目不识丁的乞丐，千百万人并没有遭受疾病的折磨。以此而论，中国的成就超过世界上任何一个不发达国家”。

In summary, the various practical achievements under the guidance of Mao Zedong’s economic thought are interlinked and intertwined as a whole. Without economic guidelines and policies adapted to the situation of the New Democratic Revolution, there would have been no revolutionary victory or the founding of New China; without the establishment of the basic socialist economic system based on public ownership, the planned economy, and distribution according to work, there would have been no completion of New China’s independent and relatively complete industrial system and national economic system; without a solid industrial economic foundation, it would have been impossible to safeguard national independence and security, provide advanced technical facilities for the development of various sectors of the national economy, or substantially improve the living standards of urban and rural residents. The economic construction achievements of the New Democratic Revolution era and the socialist revolution and construction period fully prove: first, Mao Zedong’s economic thought is by no means a utopia that, under conditions of poverty, relies on a personality cult to forge the ideological purity of the masses’ spiritual world; second, the Mao era is far from being an era of economic poverty and stagnation as measured by today’s production and living standards; third, these construction achievements were a major miracle of revolutionary victory and rapid economic development created by the entire Party and the entire people, with unprecedented enthusiasm, supporting and responding to Mao’s concepts and policies on economic revolution and construction.

总而言之，毛泽东经济思想指导下的各方面实践成就是环环相扣，相互交织在一起的整体。没有适应新民主主义革命形势的经济方针、政策，就没有革命胜利与新中国的建立；没有以公有制、计划经济和按劳分配为基础的社会主义基本经济制度的确立，就不会有新中国独立的、比较完整的工业体系和国民经济体系的建成；没有坚实的工业经济基础，就无法保障国家的独立与安全，无法为国民经济各行业的发展提供先进技术设施，也就根本无法大幅提升城乡人民生活水平。新民主主义革命年代、社会主义革命与建设时期取得的经济建设成就充分证明：第一，毛泽东经济思想绝非在贫穷条件下，依靠个人崇拜，打造人民群众意识形态纯洁性的精神世界的乌托邦；第二，毛泽东时代远非用今天生产和生活标准去衡量的经济贫困、停滞的年代；第三，这些建设成就的取得，是全党和全国人民以空前高涨的热情，拥护并响应毛泽东关于经济革命与建设的理念和方针，创造出的革命胜利与经济快速发展的重大奇迹。

IV. Research on Mao Zedong’s Economic Thought Should Be Continuously Advanced as a Systematic Project

四、毛泽东经济思想研究应作为一项系统工程不断推进

Liu Shaoqi scientifically summarized Mao Zedong Thought as “the thought that unifies the theory of Marxism-Leninism with the practice of the Chinese revolution.” The dialectical unity of theory and practice has also become a distinct characteristic of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. Based on this, a complete and accurate understanding of Mao Zedong’s economic thought requires a systematic grasp of the logical framework of the theoretical system’s generation sources—theoretical conception—policy implementation—practical achievements, deepening and refining the academic explanation of each link and its internal connections, and further deepening research in terms of both comprehensiveness and specificity.

刘少奇将毛泽东思想科学概括为“马克思列宁主义的理论与中国革命的实践统一的思想”。理论性与实践性的辩证统一也成为毛泽东经济思想的鲜明品格。基于此，完整且准确地理解毛泽东经济思想，需要系统把握该理论体系的生成源流—理论构想—政策实施—实践成就的逻辑架构，深化、细化每一环节之间及其内在的学理阐释，在整体性和专题性方面做进一步深化研究。

First, open up the cyclical development process of Mao Zedong’s economic thought system from practice to understanding to practice. Only by grasping, as a whole, the intrinsic essential connections between Mao’s various economic viewpoints and practices in different historical periods can we better understand the significant value of Mao Zedong’s economic thought as a scientific theoretical system in leading the Chinese revolution and construction to victory. It should be noted that most existing academic achievements treat the theoretical conception, policy implementation, and practical achievements within this thought system separately, either as purely textual theoretical research or by mentioning the practical level within the historical achievements of the Chinese revolution and construction. Specialized research on the operational mechanisms, effects, and important impacts of how the theory itself was implemented in construction practice is relatively weak. This makes it difficult to truly present the charm of Mao Zedong’s economic thought. To address this, research perspectives should be expanded, and a more complete logical chain and data chain should be constructed to advance this topic.

第一，打通毛泽东经济思想体系从实践—认识—实践的循环发展历程。只有从整体上掌握毛泽东在各个不同历史时期的各种经济观点与实践之间的内在本质联系，才能更好理解毛泽东经济思想作为科学理论体系，引领中国革命与建设事业走向胜利的重大价值所在。应当看到，目前学界既有成果大多将该思想体系中的理论构想、政策推行与实践成就分而论之，或做单纯文本式理论研究，或将实践层面置于中国革命和建设事业所取得的历史性成就中有所述及，对理论本身是如何落实于建设实践的运作机制、成效及其重要影响的专题研究较为薄弱。这就很难真正呈现出毛泽东经济思想的魅力，对此，应通过拓展研究视角，搭建更为完整的逻辑链、数据链深入推进这一论题研究。

Second, open up the research methods of the Marxist theory discipline and the discipline of the history of the Communist Party of China, deepening the research level of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. On the one hand, consolidate the research foundation and strengthen the ability to interpret and apply classic Marxist texts and important Party history texts. On the other hand, enhance the research ability to organically integrate the interpretation of historical facts with the application of Marxist theory. Regarding the generation basis of Mao Zedong’s economic thought: first, the dialectical unity between many theoretical genes in Mao Zedong’s economic thought and Marxist theory requires in-depth academic analysis by delving into classic Marxist texts; second, accurately grasp the meaning of the genes of fine traditional Chinese culture and their substantive impact on Mao Zedong’s economic thought; third, fully master the historical facts of Mao’s leadership of the Chinese revolution and construction, and conduct empirical analysis. Only by integrating these three aspects can the essential characteristics of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times contained in the sources of Mao Zedong’s economic thought be better clarified. Regarding the theoretical connotation of Mao Zedong’s economic thought, important theoretical conceptions and policy implementations, such as “land reform,” “the cooperative movement,” “socialist transformation,” and “the construction of the industrial system,” require, on the basis of theoretical analysis using official Party history documents, in-depth exploration of local historical and archival materials, investigation and analysis of specific historical samples, thereby laying a more solid and vivid empirical foundation for qualitative research.

第二，打通马克思主义理论学科和中共党史学科研究方法，深化马克思主义中国化时代化研究层次。一方面，夯实研究基础，加强马克思主义经典文献、中共党史重要文献的解读与应用能力。另一方面，提升诠释历史史实与运用马克思主义理论有机融合的研究能力。就毛泽东经济思想生成基础而言，一是对于毛泽东经济思想中诸多理论基因与马克思主义理论的辩证统一关系，需要深挖马克思主义经典文献，做进一步深入的学理分析；二是准确把握中华优秀传统文化基因的意涵及其对毛泽东经济思想产生的实质性影响；三是充分掌握毛泽东领导中国革命和建设的史实，加以实证分析。三者融通，才能更好明晰毛泽东经济思想源头蕴含的马克思主义中国化时代化的本质特征。就毛泽东经济思想的理论内涵而言，其中重要的理论构想与政策推行，诸如“土地改革”“合作化运动”“社会主义改造”“工业体系建设”等，需要在利用党史官方文献，进行理论剖析的基础上，深入挖掘地方文史、档案资料，考察和分析具体历史样本，从而为定性研究奠定更为扎实、生动的实证案例。

(Author’s bio: Yang Yan, Associate Professor and Master’s Supervisor, School of Marxism, Tongji University)

（作者简介：杨琰，同济大学马克思主义学院副教授，硕士生导师）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心