A Panoramic Examination of Mao Zedong’s Promotion of the Innovative Development of Chinese Marxist Philosophy during the Yan’an Period

In the process of leading the people in practice, the Communist Party of China has continuously advanced the Party’s philosophical theoretical innovation with an attitude of keeping pace with the times, realizing a historic leap for Marxist philosophy in China and endowing Marxist philosophy with “characteristics of the times” and a “Chinese form.” Looking back at history, Mao Zedong was the founder of Chinese Marxist philosophy, and the Yan’an Period was the most important stage in which Mao Zedong promoted the innovative development of Chinese Marxist philosophy.

中国共产党在领导人民开展实践的过程中，以与时俱进的态度持续推进党的哲学理论创新，实现了马克思主义哲学在中国的历史性飞跃，赋予了马克思主义哲学“时代特点”和“中国形态”。回顾历史，毛泽东是中国马克思主义哲学的开创者，延安时期是毛泽东推进中国马克思主义哲学创新发展最为重要的阶段。

I. The Birth of the Foundational Works of Chinese Marxist Philosophy — *On Practice* and *On Contradiction*

一、中国马克思主义哲学奠基之作——《实践论》《矛盾论》的诞生

After the Red Army ended the Long March and entered northern Shaanxi, in order to respond to the ideological and line issues behind past military setbacks, Mao Zedong engaged in in-depth reading and writing. In a cave dwelling in Yan’an, he wrote *On Practice* and *On Contradiction* (hereinafter referred to as the “Two Essays”), providing a systematic philosophical demonstration of the Party’s ideological line of seeking truth from facts. The “Two Essays” are the perfect outcome of the interaction and integration of Marxist philosophy, China’s concrete practice, and fine traditional Chinese culture. They are based on the actual circumstances of the Chinese revolutionary struggle, fully absorb the essence of ancient Chinese philosophy, and make a systematic and creative elaboration of the content of Marxist epistemology and dialectics.

红军结束长征进入陕北后，为对过去军事受挫背后的思想路线问题予以回应，毛泽东深入开展阅读与写作，在延安的窑洞里写下《实践论》《矛盾论》(以下简称“两论”),对党的实事求是思想路线作了系统的哲学论证。“两论”是马克思主义哲学、中国具体实践、中华优秀传统文化三者互动结合的完美成果。它们立足于中国革命斗争的实际境遇，充分汲取我国古代哲学的精华，对马克思主义认识论与辩证法内容作了系统性、创造性发挥。

(I) The “Two Essays” Conduct a Profound Summary of the Party’s Sixteen Years of Arduous Struggle and Provide Marxist Philosophical Guidance for the Revolutionary Practice That Followed

(一)“两论”对党十六年艰苦斗争实践进行深度总结，为接踵而至的革命实践提供马克思主义哲学指引

The dual reflection on action and thought is the hallmark of the “Two Essays” as the essence of the spirit of the times. When Mao Zedong wrote the “Two Essays,” although the Red Army had turned a corner from danger to safety, it still faced many urgent problems: internally, how to deploy military forces and carry out the struggle against “encirclement and suppression”; externally, how to adjust national struggle strategies and respond to the national struggle with Japan. Changes in the world revolutionary situation required the entire Party to have a correct ideological understanding to command the overall situation. However, since the Great Revolution, a dogmatist atmosphere had long permeated the Party. To this end, Mao Zedong successively wrote articles to criticize it. In *Oppose Book Worship*, he established for the first time the “integration” consciousness of adapting Marxist philosophy to the Chinese context, namely the principle that “Marxist ‘books’ must be studied, but they must be integrated with the actual conditions of our country.” Nevertheless, Mao Zedong’s views did not dominate within the Party. Under the command of the erroneous line, the Chinese revolution ultimately suffered enormous losses. After the Red Army moved to Yan’an, Mao Zedong, at the center of the revolutionary vortex, shifted from “reflection on reality” to “reflection on thought.” He clearly recognized that the two setbacks of the Chinese revolution involved not only issues of political line, military line, and organizational line, but most fundamentally, the ideological line error of failing to understand Marxism from a Chinese standpoint, leading to the deviation of the subjective from the objective and of thought from action. To educate the vast number of Party cadres and members, Mao Zedong specially compiled a teaching outline for the Counter-Japanese Military and Political University, *Dialectical Materialism (Lecture Outline)*, and the “Two Essays” were the processing and collation of two sections from it. Starting from the epistemological and dialectical issues urgently needing resolution in the Chinese revolution, the “Two Essays” provide a full philosophical analysis of the unified relationship between theory and practice, and between the universal and the particular, offering powerful critical arguments against subjectivism and providing Marxist philosophical guidance for the subsequent practice of the War of Resistance Against Japan.

对行动和思想的双重反思，是“两论”作为时代精神的精华的标志。毛泽东写作“两论”时，红军虽已转危为安，但依然面临着诸多急需解决的问题：对内如何部署军力，开展反“围剿”斗争；对外如何调整民族斗争策略，应对同日本的民族斗争。世界革命形势的变化要求全党有一个正确的思想认识指挥全局。但自大革命以来，党内长期弥漫着教条主义风气。为此，毛泽东陆续撰文对其展开批判，在《反对本本主义》中，他首次确立把马克思主义哲学中国化的“结合”意识，即“马克思主义的‘本本’是要学习的，但是必须同我国的实际情况相结合”原则。然而，毛泽东的意见在党内并不占主导地位，在错误路线的指挥下，中国革命最终蒙受巨大损失。红军转战延安后，身处革命漩涡中心的毛泽东从“现实之反思”转向“思想之反思”,他清醒认识到中国革命的两次挫折，不仅涉及政治路线、军事路线、组织路线问题，最根本的是没有以中国立场理解马克思主义的思想路线错误，以致主观对客观、思想对行动的背离。为教育广大党员干部，毛泽东特意为抗日军政大学编写讲课教材《辩证法唯物论(讲授提纲)》,“两论”就是其中两节的加工整理。“两论”从中国革命亟待解决的认识论和辩证法问题入手，对理论和实践、共性和个性的统一关系作了充分的哲学解析，为反对主观主义提供了强有力的批判论据，也为后续的抗日战争实践提供了马克思主义哲学指导。

(II) The “Two Essays” Critically Absorb the Intellectual Resources of Soviet Scholars and Creatively Develop Marxist Epistemology and Dialectics

(二)“两论”批判性汲取苏联学者的思想资源，对马克思主义认识论和辩证法进行了创造性发展

The “Two Essays” are not the creation of any new philosophy; their ideological origin is dialectical materialism. They develop Marxist philosophy according to the practical requirements of the times. *On Practice* takes the dialectical interactive mechanism of practice and cognition as its narrative thread. Building on Lenin’s assertion that practice is the primary viewpoint of epistemology, it elaborates in detail the viewpoint of the primacy of practice from four levels: practice as the source of cognition, the driving force of cognitive development, the criterion of the truth of cognition, and the ultimate purpose of cognition. On the basis of a comprehensive discussion of the stages of cognitive development from perceptual knowledge to rational knowledge and then from rational knowledge back to revolutionary practice, it summarizes and refines the general law of cognitive development of “practice, cognition, re-practice, and re-cognition” advancing in a cycle. *On Contradiction* takes the law of the unity of opposites as its narrative thread. Based on the nature, function, and characteristics of contradiction, it elaborates the knowledge structure of the law of the unity of opposites from six dimensions: two world outlooks, the universality of contradiction, the particularity of contradiction, the principal contradiction and the principal aspect of contradiction, the identity and struggle of the aspects of contradiction, and the place of antagonism in contradiction. It breaks the previous “three-element” pattern of the “three major laws” being on a par and establishes a systematic dialectics of contradiction co-constructed by the “law of the unity of contradictions,” the “law of the transformation of contradictions,” and the “law of the development of contradictions.” Limited by the social conditions of the time, Mao Zedong could not read all the works of Marx and Engels. In the process of forming the “Two Essays,” the writings of Soviet scholars played a good mediating role. For example, in discussing the place of practice in cognition, *On Practice* drew on the content of Section 3, Chapter 5, “Social Practice as the Measure of Cognition,” from Mitin’s *Dialectical and Historical Materialism*. In discussing the internal and external causes of things, *On Contradiction* drew on the content of Section 7, Chapter 3, “The Significance of the Dominant Aspect of Contradiction,” from Shirokov’s *Textbook on Dialectical Materialism*. When learning from and drawing on the beneficial components of Soviet writings, Mao Zedong never rigidly copied or transplanted them. In terms of structural arrangement, the layout of the “Two Essays” is more logically rigorous, clearer in argumentation, and more distinct in level than the logic of Soviet writings. In terms of content presentation, the contributions of the “Two Essays” to Marxist philosophy are more significant. The contributions of *On Practice* include: attaching great importance to the second leap from rational knowledge back to practice, pointing out that it is the continuation of the entire cognitive process; by explaining the relativity of the cognitive movement, proposing that the truth of cognition requires the continuous repetition of practice; putting forward the category of “re-cognition,” explaining it as a necessary link in the cognitive movement, and summarizing the general formula for the ascending movement of the subject’s cognition, etc. The contributions of *On Contradiction* include: establishing the universality and particularity of contradiction as opposing concepts, explaining in detail the meaning of the universality of contradiction and the five types of situations of the particularity of contradiction; highlighting the imbalance existing in the movement of contradiction; profoundly explaining the dual meaning of the identity of contradiction, emphasizing the distinction between dialectical identity and metaphysical identity, etc. Although the “Two Essays” are based on the theoretical platform built by Soviet scholars, their unique philosophical insights were shaped in the reflection on the errors of the dogmatist faction, which was “divorced from theory and practice, anti-dialectical, one-sided, and formalistic.”

“两论”不是任何新哲学的创立，其思想本源是辩证唯物论，它根据时代的实践要求，发展了马克思主义哲学。《实践论》以实践与认识的辩证互动机制为叙事线索，在承继列宁关于实践是认识论首要观点的论断基础上，从实践是认识的来源、认识发展的动力、认识真理性的标准、认识的最终目的四个层面，详尽地论证了实践第一的观点，在全面论述从感性认识至理性认识、再由理性认识归于革命实践的认识发展阶段基础上，归纳提炼出“实践、认识、再实践、再认识”循环推进的认识发展总规律。《矛盾论》以对立统一律为叙事线索，基于矛盾的性质、作用、特点，从两种发展观、矛盾的普遍性、矛盾的特殊性、主要的矛盾和主要的矛盾方面、矛盾诸方面的同一性和斗争性、对抗在矛盾中的地位六大维度阐述了对立统一规律的知识架构，打破了过去“三大规律”齐平的“三元论”格局，建立了由“矛盾统一律”“矛盾转化律”“矛盾发展律”共构的系统性矛盾辩证法。受当时社会条件的限制，毛泽东无法读到马恩的所有著作，在“两论”形成的过程中，苏联学者的撰著起到了良好的中介性作用。譬如《实践论》在论述实践在认识中的地位时，借鉴了米丁《辩证唯物论与历史唯物论》第三章第五节“社会的实践为认识的标度”的内容。《矛盾论》在论述事物的内外因时，借鉴了西洛可夫《辩证法唯物论教程》第三章第七节“矛盾的主导方面之意义”的内容。毛泽东在学习借鉴苏联著述的有益成分时，从没有生硬地搬运挪用。在体例组合上，“两论”布局较苏联的著述逻辑更缜密、论说更清晰、层次更鲜明；在内容呈现上，“两论”对马克思主义哲学的贡献更为显著。《实践论》的贡献有：高度重视由理性认识回归实践的第二个飞跃，指出它是全部认识进程的继续；通过论释认识运动的相对性，提出真理认识需要实践不断反复的过程性；提出“再认识”范畴，将其视为认识运动的必要环节予以说明，概括了主体认识上升运动的总公式等。《矛盾论》的贡献有：把矛盾普遍性和特殊性确定为对立概念，详释了矛盾普遍性含义与矛盾特殊性五类情形；突出矛盾运动存在的不平衡性；深刻说明矛盾同一性的双重含义，强调辩证同一性与形而上学同一性的区分等。“两论”虽立基于苏联学者搭建的理论平台，但其独到的哲学见解，是在反思“理论与实践脱离的、反辩证法的、片面性和形式主义的”教条派错误时形塑的。

(III) The “Two Essays” Inherit the Legacy of Ancient Chinese Philosophy and Shine with the Philosophical Radiance of the Chinese Nation

(三)“两论”承继中国古代哲学遗产，闪耀着中华民族的哲学光辉

*On Practice* organically integrates the ancient Chinese view of the unity of knowledge and action with the Marxist view of practice, forming a Chinese Marxist theory of knowledge and action. The relationship between knowledge and action is an epistemological topic that has existed since ancient times. In the debates among ancient philosophers over issues such as the difficulty, importance, and priority of knowledge and action, a view of knowledge and action gradually formed that “action should be emphasized,” which indirectly reflects their recognition of the foundational role of practice. The Chinese nation’s pragmatic tradition of emphasizing practice forged Mao Zedong’s style of “speaking the actual words of life and society,” which became the ideological foundation for his engagement in social practice. Although *On Practice* does not directly quote the ancient philosophers, the layers of influence of traditional theories of knowledge and action can be felt between the lines. In understanding the source of revolutionary knowledge, *On Practice* originally proposes the classification of direct experience and indirect experience, which can be traced back to Mozi’s categories of “knowledge by hearsay” and “knowledge by personal experience.” Using Mozi’s “knowledge by personal experience,” Mao Zedong points out that “those who truly know by personal experience are the people who practice in the world,” indicating the important position of direct experience. At the same time, he gives an example: “If you want to know the taste of a pear, you must change the pear by eating it yourself.” This is similar to Yan Yuan’s [1]1 Yan Yuan (1635–1704), also known as Yan Xizhai, was a Qing Dynasty Confucian philosopher who emphasized practical knowledge and action over textual study. statement in the early Qing Dynasty: “You must take it and put it in your mouth to know that it tastes like this.” Based on a high affirmation of practice, Mao Zedong elucidates the rule of the cognitive movement that cognition originates from practice and is tested and developed in practice, constructing a “dialectical materialist view of the unity of knowledge and action.”

《实践论》把中国古代知行统一观和马克思主义实践观有机结合，形成了中国马克思主义知行论。知行关系是古来有之的认识论话题，先哲在关于知行的难易、轻重、先后等问题的争论中，逐步形成“则当以力行为重”的知行观，侧面反映出他们对于实践基础性地位的体认。中华民族重践履的务实传统铸就毛泽东“踏着人生社会的实际说话”的行事风格，成为他投身社会实践的思想基础。《实践论》虽没有直接引述先哲，但字里行间都能感知到传统知行学说的层层投影。在对革命知识来源的理解上，《实践论》独创地提出直接经验与间接经验的分类，这可以追溯到墨子的“闻知”“亲知”范畴。毛泽东借助墨子的“亲知”指出“真正亲知的是天下实践着的人”,表明直接经验的重要地位，同时举例，“你要知道梨子的滋味，你就得变革梨子，亲口吃一吃”,这同清初颜元的“必箸取而纳之口，乃知如此味辛”相通。基于对实践的高度肯定，毛泽东阐明认识源于实践又在实践中检验与发展的认识运动规则，建构了“辩证唯物论的知行统一观”。

*On Contradiction* fused ancient Chinese dialectics with Marxist dialectics into a single whole, forming a Chinese Marxist theory of contradiction. China’s dialectical thinking has a long history; as early as the *Commentary on the Book of Changes* (*Yizhuan*), propositions such as “the firm and the yielding push against each other and thereby give rise to change” [2]2 “The firm and the yielding push against each other and thereby give rise to change” (*gangrou xiangtui er sheng bianhua*) is a phrase from the *Xici* (Appended Remarks) section of the *Yizhuan* (Commentary on the Book of Changes), an ancient Chinese philosophical text. naively revealed the universal character of the transformation of things. The speculative spirit of Chinese culture directly influenced the formation of Mao Zedong’s dialectical thought. In the first draft of *On Contradiction*, he extensively used pairs of opposites such as above and below, calamity and fortune to explain the principle of identity between opposites, though for the sake of conciseness he deleted these in later revisions. When explaining the identity and struggle of opposites, Mao Zedong directly cited the ancient phrase “opposites complement each other” (*xiangfan xiangcheng*), pointing out that “opposites complement each other” means “that things which are opposite to each other also possess identity.” “‘Opposite’ means the mutual exclusion or mutual struggle of two contradictory aspects. ‘Complement’ means that, under given conditions, the two contradictory aspects become united and attain identity.” [3]3 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction* (August 1937), *Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung*, Vol. I. The phrase “opposites complement each other” (*xiangfan xiangcheng*) originates from the *Book of Han* (*Hanshu*), a standard history of the Han dynasty. Laozi had earlier noted the mutual transformation of opposites, as in “the great passes away, passing away means far-reaching, far-reaching means returning.” [4]4 This is a paraphrase of a passage from Chapter 25 of the *Daodejing* by Laozi, a foundational text of Daoism. “Great” means that a contradiction reaches its extreme and transforms in the opposite direction. Because they lacked verification of the conditions for transformation, ancient Chinese dialectics often fell into the rut of cyclical thinking and relativism. On the basis of inheriting the ancient Chinese dialectical idea of the inevitability of contradiction transformation, *On Contradiction* highlighted the conditional nature of contradiction transformation. Mao Zedong believed that the concreteness and actuality of contradictions determine the concreteness and actuality of contradiction transformation, and thereby determine the conditional nature of contradiction transformation: “When the necessary conditions are present, certain contradictions arise in the process of development of things, and these contradictions are mutually dependent and mutually transform.” [5]5 Mao Zedong, *On Contradiction*. It was precisely by filtering the essence of traditional dialectics through the “sieve” of dialectical materialism and making it his own that Mao Zedong constructed a complete theoretical form for the law of the unity of opposites.

《矛盾论》把中国古代辩证法与马克思主义辩证法熔铸为一体，形成了中国马克思主义矛盾论。我国辩证法思维源远流长，早在《易传》中，就以“刚柔相推而生变化”等命题素朴揭示事物变化的普遍性特征。中华文化的思辨精神直接影响毛泽东辩证法思想的形成，他在《矛盾论》初稿中大量使用诸如上与下、祸与福等矛盾对子解释对立面之间的同一性原理，只不过为了行文精炼，在后来的修订中作了删减。在说明矛盾的同一性与斗争性时，毛泽东直接以古语“相反相成”指出，相反相成“就是说相反的东西有同一性”,“‘相反’就是说两个矛盾方面的互相排斥，或互相斗争。‘相成’就是说在一定条件之下两个矛盾方面互相联结起来，获得了同一性”。老子早先就注意到矛盾对立面的相互转化，即“大曰逝，逝曰远，远曰反”,“大”就是矛盾到达极致而向反方向转化。由于缺乏对转化条件的求证，中国古代辩证法往往陷入循环主义和相对主义窠臼。《矛盾论》在继承中国古代辩证法矛盾转化必然性思想的基础上，突出矛盾转化的有条件性。毛泽东认为，矛盾的具体性和现实性决定了矛盾转化的具体性和现实性，由之决定了矛盾转化的有条件性，“一定的必要的条件具备了，事物发展的过程就发生一定的矛盾，而且这种或这些矛盾互相依存，又互相转化”。正是通过辩证唯物论“过滤器”筛选出传统辩证法的精华并为己所用，毛泽东为对立统一律构筑了完整的理论形态。

II. A Comprehensive Elaboration of the Semantic Connotation and Generative Path of Chinese Marxist Philosophy

二、全面阐述中国马克思主义哲学的语义内涵和生成路径

In order to break the shackles that subjectivism placed on the Party’s innovative spirit, Mao Zedong was the first to put forward the major task of “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context” (*makesi zhuyi zhongguohua*), calling on all Party members to establish a conscious awareness of innovating Chinese Marxist philosophy. Although Mao Zedong did not conduct a separate discussion of the question of Chinese Marxist philosophy, his various written records fully display a clear line of thought for constructing Chinese Marxist philosophy.

为冲破主观主义对党的创新精神的桎梏，毛泽东率先提出“马克思主义中国化”的重大任务，号召全体党员树立起创新中国马克思主义哲学的自觉意识。毛泽东虽然没有对中国马克思主义哲学问题作单独探讨，但在他的各类文字记叙中，都完整展现了中国马克思主义哲学清晰的构建思路。

(1) First Proposal of “Adapting Marxism to the Chinese Context,” Clearly Defining the Connotation of Chinese Marxist Philosophy

(一)首提“马克思主义中国化”,明确界定中国马克思主义哲学内涵

After the full-scale outbreak of the War of Resistance Against Japan, securing the Party’s leading role in the united front became a major issue of concern for Mao Zedong. In order to cultivate the theoretical innovation consciousness of Party cadres, Mao Zedong explicitly put forward the epochal task of “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context” at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee, [6]6 The Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the CPC was held in Yan’an from September to November 1938. emphasizing that this was “a problem the whole Party must understand and urgently solve.” [7]7 Mao Zedong, “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War” (October 1938), *Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung*, Vol. II. From this point on, the integration of Marxism with China’s actual conditions became the Party’s theoretical self-consciousness.

抗日战争全面爆发后，切实争取党在统一战线中的主导权成为毛泽东关注的重大问题。为培育党员干部的理论创新意识，毛泽东在六届六中全会上明确提出“马克思主义中国化”的时代任务，强调这是“全党亟待了解并亟须解决的问题”。至此，马克思主义同中国实际相结合成为全党的理论自觉。

Mao Zedong gave a precise definition of the connotation of “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context.” First, “to make Marxism concrete in China” means “to apply it in accordance with China’s characteristics.” [8]8 Ibid. “China’s characteristics” encompass China’s economy, politics, geography, and other aspects; the practice of class struggle is the main characteristic among them. The synthesis of the above elements constitutes “China’s concrete actuality.” The reason theory must be applied to actuality is, on the one hand, that if theory is not used by the masses and thereby made actual, it can only be a scholarly exercise; on the other hand, Marxism can only make its general principles stand out and become the “weapon of criticism” guiding the Chinese revolution if it exists in “China’s concrete environment.” [9]9 Ibid. Second, “to Marxify China’s rich practical experience” means to upgrade the rich experience of the revolution into theory, adding new qualitative elements to Marxist philosophy. Genuine theory “is theory that has been drawn from objective actuality and has been verified in objective actuality.” [10]10 Mao Zedong, “Rectify the Party’s Style of Work” (February 1942), *Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung*, Vol. III. Just as Lenin created Bolshevism, Marxism must “create some new things in China”; [11]11 Mao Zedong, “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War.” these “new things” are Chinese Marxism. “Making Marxism concrete in China” emphasizes the movement from the generality of theory to the particularity of China; “Marxifying China’s actuality” emphasizes the movement from the particularity of China to the generality of theory. Chinese Marxist philosophy is the theoretical result of the unity of these two processes of “-ification.”

毛泽东对“马克思主义中国化”内涵有着确切界定。第一，“使马克思主义在中国具体化”,就是“按照中国的特点去应用它”。“中国的特点”涵盖中国的经济、政治、地理环境等方面，阶级斗争实践是其中的主要特点，以上要素的综合，构成“中国具体实际”。理论之所以要应用于实际，一方面，理论若不为群众所用而使其现实化，也只能是书斋学问；另一方面，马克思主义只有存在于“中国的具体的环境”中，才能使其中的一般原理脱颖而出，成为指导中国革命的“批判的武器”。第二，“使中国革命丰富的实际经验马克思主义化”,即把革命的丰富经验升级为理论，为马克思主义哲学增添新质要素。真正的理论，“就是从客观实际抽出来又在客观实际中得到了证明的理论”。如同列宁创造布尔什维主义那样，马克思主义必须“在中国创造出一些新的东西”,“新的东西”就是中国马克思主义。“马克思主义在中国具体化”侧重理论的一般性到中国的特殊性，“中国实际马克思主义化”侧重中国的特殊性到理论的一般性，中国马克思主义哲学就是两个“化”之过程相统一的理论结果。

In addition to focusing on the practical dimension, Mao Zedong also examined the connotation of Chinese Marxist philosophy from the cultural dimension. In *On the New Stage*, he pointed out: “To study our historical heritage and give it a critical summation using Marxist methods is another task for our study.” [12]12 Mao Zedong, *On the New Stage* (October 1938), a political report delivered at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee. As a foreign civilization, Marxism, in order to find a theoretical growth point in China, could not bypass China’s historical and cultural traditions. Mao Zedong demanded that “from Confucius to Sun Yat-sen, we should sum them up and inherit this precious legacy,” [13]13 Ibid. that is, to inherit both the ancient tradition centered on Confucius and Mencius in Chinese culture and the modern tradition represented by Sun Yat-sen.

除关注实践维度外，毛泽东还从文化维度考察中国马克思主义哲学的内涵。他在《论新阶段》中指出：“学习我们的历史遗产，用马克思主义的方法给以批判的总结，是我们学习的另一任务。”作为外域文明，马克思主义要在中国找到理论生长点，就无法绕开我国的历史文化传统，毛泽东要求“从孔夫子到孙中山，我们应当给以总结，承继这一份珍贵的遗产”,即承继中华文化中以孔孟为主体的古代传统和以孙中山为代表的近代传统。

In May 1943, based on the background of the complete dissolution of the Communist International, [14]14 The Communist International (Comintern) was formally dissolved by its Executive Committee in May 1943. Mao Zedong proposed that “Marxism-Leninism, this revolutionary science, must be further and deeply integrated with China’s revolutionary practice, China’s history, and China’s culture.” [15]15 Mao Zedong, “Some Questions Concerning Methods of Leadership” (June 1943), *Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung*, Vol. III. These “three deep integrations” placed the three elements of practice, history, and culture within “concrete actuality.” While interpreting the connotation of “adapting Marxism to the Chinese context” from the perspective of “integration,” they also contained the semantic connotation and realization path of Chinese Marxist philosophy.

1943年5月，基于共产国际彻底解散的大背景，毛泽东提出“要使得马克思列宁主义这一革命科学更进一步地和中国革命实践、中国历史、中国文化深相结合起来”。三个“深相结合”把实践、历史、文化三要素寓于“具体实际”中，在以“结合”视域诠释“马克思主义中国化”内涵的同时，蕴含了中国马克思主义哲学的语义内涵和实现路径。

(2) Based on the Principle of Integrating “Marxism-Leninism” and “China’s Revolutionary Practice,” Planning the Practical Path for the Innovative Development of Chinese Marxist Philosophy

(二)基于“马克思列宁主义”和“中国革命实践”相结合原则，为中国马克思主义哲学规划创新发展的实践路径

In Mao Zedong’s view, innovating Chinese Marxist philosophy must first follow the practical path of combining theory and practice. According to the principle of the unity of “concretizing Marxism in China” and “Marxifying Chinese reality,” Chinese Marxist philosophy is the result of the unity of two processes: the practicalization of theory and the theorization of practice. The so-called practicalization of theory is the concrete application of theory in practice, which includes two links: first, distinguishing the general from the particular in Marxism. “As a theory for transforming China, the study and acceptance of Marxism must inevitably become the conscious action of tens of thousands of Party members and the masses of the people.” Developing Marxism presupposes studying and adhering to Marxism, but regarding how to study, there exist two styles of study: dogmatism and seeking truth from facts. The former, ignoring the limitations of time and space, regards “certain individual words and phrases in the texts as ready-made panaceas.” Mao Zedong believed that the general is contained within the particular. “Marxist-Leninist books,” as vehicles for study, rarely directly expound general principles; instead, they mostly reflect the general through concrete expositions with temporal and regional characteristics. This leads many Party members, when studying “the books of the ancestors,” to regard them as doctrines that encompass everything. He emphasized that studying Marxism “is to seek positions, viewpoints, and methods from it for solving the theoretical and strategic problems of the Chinese revolution.” That is, adopting an attitude of “shooting the arrow at the target,” using China’s reality as the yardstick, analyzing the discourse and expositions of the texts in terms of commonality and individuality, the general and the particular, and extracting and refining from the texts general principles with universal significance. The second is transforming general principles into practical concepts. Theoretical concepts and practical concepts are two ways of grasping the objective world. People not only use theoretical concepts to understand the essential laws of the objective world but also use practical concepts to change the state of existence of things. A practical concept is an ideal conceptual model constructed in the mind by the subject integrating various elements of practice to simulate practical behavior, usually manifested in the form of lines, principles, and policies. Mao Zedong emphasized: “Policy is the starting point of all practical actions of a revolutionary party, and it is manifested in the process and outcome of action.” Of course, the formation of correct practical concepts is the result of in-depth investigation and research into reality. Only practical concepts formed through investigation and research can open the channel from theory to practice from the dimension of actuality. The so-called theorization of practice is the sublimation of perceptual experience generated by practice into theory. There are two main paths for the subject to enhance its own practical ability: one is the accumulative model of practice + practice + practice; the other is the cyclical model of practical innovation → innovative theory → practical innovation → innovative theory. Mao Zedong pointed out that accumulating practical experience to enhance practical ability is effective for simple practice but has little effect when facing complex practice. The Party’s repeated setbacks in past military struggles were closely related to the lack of an independent theory based on China’s reality. Only by organically combining practical innovation and theoretical innovation, and carrying out practice under the guidance of innovative theory, can people substantially improve their practical ability. Mao Zedong demanded “examining all problems, or major problems, of revolutionary practice and raising them to the theoretical level,” that is, “making theoretical creations that meet China’s needs.” Practice, as the source of theory, runs through the entire construction of Chinese Marxist philosophy. Facing specific situations that constantly emerge in practice, the subject must conduct concrete analysis to adjust previous practical concepts until a certain stage of practice is completed, and then promptly condense the fresh experience accumulated in practice into theory. The experience of the Chinese revolution is a composite of multi-level experiences in the democratic revolution, including politics, economy, and military affairs. Chinese Marxist philosophy is the theoretical result of summarizing these composite experiences from the dimension of Marxist philosophy and is an important part of Chinese Marxism.

在毛泽东看来，创新中国马克思主义哲学首先要遵循理论与实践相结合的实践路径。依据“马克思主义在中国具体化”和“中国实际马克思主义化”相统一原则，中国马克思主义哲学是理论实践化和实践理论化两个过程相统一的结果。所谓理论实践化，就是理论在实践中的具体应用，包括两个环节：一是对马克思主义作一般与个别的辨析。“作为改造中国的理论，对马克思主义的学习与接受势必要成为成千上万共产党员与人民群众的自觉行动”。发展马克思主义，学习和坚持马克思主义是前提，但就如何学习，却存在着教条和实事求是两种学风，前者不顾时空局限，把文本的“某些个别字句看作现成的灵丹圣药”。毛泽东认为，一般寓于个别之中，“马克思列宁主义书本”作为学习载体，很少直接阐述一般原理，多是通过具有时间地域特性的具体论述来反映一般，这导致很多党员在学习“老祖宗的书”时，将其视作包揽一切的教义。他强调，学习马克思主义“是为着解决中国革命的理论问题和策略问题而去从它找立场，找观点，找方法的”,也就是秉持“有的放矢”的态度，以中国实际为标尺，对文本的话语和论述作共性与个性、一般和个别的剖析，从文本中剥离提炼出具有普遍意义的一般原理。二是将一般原理转化为实践观念。理论观念和实践观念是把握客观世界的两种方式。人不仅要以理论观念认识客观世界的本质规律，还要以实践观念变革事物的存在状态。实践观念是主体在思维中整合实践各要素以模拟实践行为，从而在思想中构建的理想观念模型，通常表现为路线方针政策。毛泽东强调：“政策是革命政党一切实际行动的出发点，并且表现于行动的过程和归宿。”当然，正确实践观念的形成是深入实际调查研究的结果，只有经过调查研究形成的实践观念，才能从现实性维度打开理论前往实践的通道。所谓实践理论化，就是将实践生成的感性经验升华为理论。主体提升自身实践能力主要有两种路向：一种是实践+实践+实践的叠加模式，一种是实践创新→创新理论→实践创新→创新理论的循环模式。毛泽东指出，通过实践经验累积来增强实践能力，对于简单实践尚且有效，但面对复杂实践效果甚微，党在过去的军事斗争中屡屡受挫，与缺乏基于中国实际的自主理论有着莫大关系。只有把实践创新和理论创新有机结合，在创新理论的指导下开展实践，才能实质提高人的实践能力。毛泽东要求“对革命实践的一切问题，或重大问题，加以考察，使之上升到理论的阶段”,即“作出合乎中国需要的理论性的创造”。实践作为理论的源泉，贯穿整个中国马克思主义哲学的建构，面对实践中不断出现的具体情况，主体要具体分析以调适之前的实践观念，直至某一实践阶段完结后，及时将实践中积聚的新鲜经验凝练成理论。中国革命经验是民主革命政治、经济、军事等多层次经验的复合体，中国马克思主义哲学就是从马克思主义哲学维度对这些复合经验进行总结的理论成果，是中国马克思主义的重要部分。

(3) Based on the principle of combining “Marxism-Leninism” and “Chinese culture,” planning an innovative development cultural path for Chinese Marxist philosophy

(三)基于“马克思列宁主义”和“中国文化”相结合原则，为中国马克思主义哲学规划创新发展的文化路径

While examining the practical path of the generation of Chinese Marxist philosophy, Mao Zedong also simultaneously paid attention to its cultural path and discussed how to critically inherit historical and cultural heritage. From the perspective of Mao Zedong’s philosophy itself, its thinking process mainly has three links: First, making a distinction between the attributes of “two types of traditional culture.” To inherit historical and cultural heritage, one must first conduct a prerequisite reflection on traditional culture itself. Feudal culture indeed reflected and even served the feudal ruling class, but feudal culture is not the entirety of “historical China.” Mao Zedong demanded a one-divides-into-two distinction regarding traditional culture as a whole. For example, on the issue of Confucius, while Mao Zedong disagreed with Confucius’s conservative and backward political attitude and opposed the retrogressive practice of venerating Confucius and reading the classics, he affirmed that “Confucius was the sage of feudal society” and repeatedly emphasized learning from Confucius’s conduct and actions, opposing the argument of completely negating Confucius. It was precisely based on the pattern of the dual coexistence of the feudal and non-feudal aspects of traditional culture that Mao Zedong later summarized and pointed out that it is necessary, based on dialectical historical materialism, to “distinguish feudal things from non-feudal things.” [16]16 The “two types of traditional culture” refers to Mao’s analytical distinction between the feudal (reactionary) and non-feudal (progressive or popular) elements within China’s historical cultural heritage. Second, the Marxist transformation of the semantics of traditional culture. The distinction between “two types of traditional culture” broke the oppositional thinking of the “Westernization faction” and the “national essence faction,” [17]17 The “Westernization faction” (西化派) advocated wholesale Westernization of Chinese culture, while the “national essence faction” (国粹派) sought to preserve traditional Chinese culture in its entirety. Both were opposed by Mao’s dialectical approach. drawing boundaries for what kind of traditional culture to discard and what kind to inherit. However, the inherited parts cannot be used directly. Mao Zedong believed that even people’s culture inevitably carries unreasonable feudal elements, so its connotation must be improved from a Marxist perspective, endowing it with new meanings beneficial to the development of revolutionary practice. Mao Zedong’s approach had two points: following Marxism, transforming and absorbing content in traditional culture that is compatible and common with Marxist philosophy. For example, “seeking truth from facts,” originally a proposition in textual criticism reflecting the rigorous style of ancient scholarship, underwent a qualitative leap in both its connotation and extension after transformation, becoming a Sinicized expression of the Marxist worldview; [18]18 “Seeking truth from facts” (实事求是) is a classical Chinese phrase originally from the *Book of Han* (汉书), describing a rigorous scholarly attitude. Mao Zedong redefined it as a core principle of the CPC’s ideological line, meaning to proceed from reality and find the truth in practice. saying what Marxism has not said, that is, while adhering to the basic spirit of Marxism, transforming and absorbing the unique parts of traditional culture that Marxism has discussed little. Taking the proposition of the “subjective world” as an example, ancient Chinese philosophers had a tradition of self-cultivation of the subject, and modern Chinese further proposed the idea of transforming the national character. Mao Zedong eliminated the tendencies of individualism and voluntarism within it, fully released its reasonable factors, and proposed the idea of transforming the subject involving multiple aspects such as outlook on life, values, and work style, opening up a unique domain of Chinese Marxist philosophy. Third, transforming the discourse system. Every nation has its own thinking habits and forms of expression. Cultural exchange and integration are themselves processes of bringing each other closer. Chinese culture excels at vividly expressing profound philosophy through various popular techniques and linguistic forms. Mao Zedong believed that for Marxist philosophy to be accepted by the Chinese people, it “must be realized through certain national forms.” In his writings, Mao Zedong transformed the context of Marx’s philosophical terms in a way familiar to the Chinese people. For example, when discussing violent revolution, he used armed struggle as a substitute. At the same time, he used folk proverbs, idioms, and allusions from literature and history to provide popular explanations of Marxist philosophy. For instance, in *On Practice*, he used the ancient saying “a fall into a pit, a gain in your wit” to illustrate the significance of practice in testing knowledge. [19]19 *On Practice* (实践论) is a philosophical essay by Mao Zedong written in July 1937, which systematically expounds the Marxist theory of knowledge, emphasizing the role of practice in the formation and development of knowledge.

在考察中国马克思主义哲学生成的实践进路时，毛泽东还同步关注着其发生的文化进路，并就其如何批判性继承历史文化遗产作了论述。从毛泽东哲学本身来看，其思维过程主要有三个环节：一是作“两种传统文化”的属性区分。继承历史文化遗产，首先要对传统文化本身作前提性审思。封建主义文化确实反映乃至服务于封建统治阶级，但封建主义文化并非“历史的中国”的全部，毛泽东要求对传统文化整体作一分为二的区别。譬如就孔子问题，毛泽东在不赞同孔子保守落后的政治态度，反对尊孔读经的复古做派的同时，肯定了“孔夫子是封建社会的圣人”,数次强调要学孔夫子的为人行事，反对全盘否定孔子的论调。正是基于传统文化封建性与非封建性二元并存的格局，毛泽东后来总结指出，要基于辩证的历史唯物主义“把封建主义的东西和非封建主义的东西区别开来”。二是传统文化语义的马克思主义改造。“两种传统文化”的区分打破了“西化派”和“国粹派”的对立思维，为摈弃什么样的传统文化、继承什么样的传统文化划定了界限，但其继承部分是不能直接拿来使用的。毛泽东认为，即便是人民文化也难免会附着不合理的封建性因素，因此要对其内涵进行马克思主义的改进，赋予其有益于革命实践发展的新义。毛泽东的思路有两点：接着马克思主义说，对传统文化中与马克思主义哲学契合共通的内容加以改造后吸收。譬如“实事求是”作为反映古代严谨求学作风的考据学命题，经改造后，其内涵到外延都发生了质的飞跃，成为马克思主义世界观的中国化表达；说马克思主义未说，即在遵守马克思主义基本精神的前提下，对传统文化中马克思主义论及不多的独有部分进行改造后吸取。以“主观世界”命题为例，我国古代先哲素来有主体修身的传统，近代国人进一步提出改造国民性思想，毛泽东剔除其中的个人本位和唯意志论倾向，充分释放其合理性因素，提出涉及人生观、价值观、作风等多方面的主体改造思想，开辟了中国马克思主义哲学的独有论域。三是转化话语系统。任何民族都有自己的思维习性和表达形式，文化间的交流与融合本身就是拉近彼此的过程。中国文化擅长以各种通俗表现手法和语言形式形象表达艰深哲理。毛泽东认为，马克思主义哲学要为中国人接受，必须“通过一定的民族形式才能实现”。在创作中，毛泽东以国人习惯对马克思的哲学术语作了语境转化，比如讲暴力革命时用武装斗争来指代，同时，他以民俗谚语、文史典故中的话语对马克思主义哲学进行通俗化解释，比如《实践论》就以古语“吃一堑长一智”说明实践对认识的检验意义。

3. Exploring Chinese Marxist Philosophy in Various Practical Fields during the Yan’an Revolutionary Period

三、对延安革命时期各实践领域展开中国马克思主义哲学的探索

To achieve a comprehensive victory in the democratic revolution, Mao Zedong consciously applied the Marxist worldview to the political main line, military struggle, and methodology of Yan’an, forming a Sinicized Marxist military philosophy, political philosophy, and philosophical methodology.

为求得民主革命的全面胜利，毛泽东自觉把马克思主义世界观运用于延安政治主线、军事斗争、方法论等层面，形成中国化的马克思主义军事哲学、政治哲学和哲学方法论。

(1) Facing revolutionary military practice, constructing a Sinicized Marxist military philosophy

(一)面向革命军事实践，构建中国化的马克思主义军事哲学

The Sinicized Marxist military philosophy is a doctrine that reveals the intrinsic essence and laws of Chinese military movements. Before arriving in Yan’an, Mao Zedong had already creatively put forward the idea of “armed independent regimes of workers and peasants” [20]20 “Armed independent regimes of workers and peasants” (工农武装割据) refers to Mao’s strategy, developed during the Jinggangshan period (1927–1930), of establishing rural revolutionary base areas controlled by the Communist Party through armed force. and strategic and tactical principles such as the “sixteen-character formula” [21]21 The “sixteen-character formula” (十六字诀) is a set of guerrilla warfare tactics summarized by Mao in the late 1920s: “The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we pursue.” on military issues. The Yan’an period was a concentrated period of large-scale military warfare in China. Facing the treacherous war environment at home and abroad, Mao Zedong carried out a great deal of military theoretical work, leaving behind many monographs and telegrams containing profound military philosophical thought, among which *Problems of Strategy in China’s Revolutionary War* and *On Protracted War* are the most classic.

中国化的马克思主义军事哲学是揭示中国军事运动内在本质和规律的学说。在尚未抵达延安时，毛泽东已经就军事问题创造性提出了“工农武装割据”思想、“十六字诀”等战略战术原则。延安时期是中国大规模军事战争的集中期，面对国内外风云诡谲的战争环境，毛泽东做了大量的军事理论工作，留下不少蕴含着深厚军事哲学思想的专著和文电指示，其中《中国革命战争的战略问题》《论持久战》最为经典。

*Problems of Strategy in China’s Revolutionary War* is a work that unifies the history of war practice with military philosophical theory and marks the formation of the Sinicized Marxist military philosophy. This text prominently emphasizes the importance of shifting the research perspective on war from “the laws of war in general” to “the laws of a special revolutionary war” and then to the operational mechanisms of China’s revolutionary war, pointing out the thinking direction from universality to particularity that must be followed in understanding the laws of war. In view of the Party’s academic style of only studying Soviet-style laws of war and regulations, Mao Zedong pointed out that while the experience of the Soviet war should indeed be respected, “the experience of China’s revolutionary war should be respected even more” [22]22 Mao Zedong, *Problems of Strategy in China’s Revolutionary War* (December 1936), in *Selected Works of Mao Tse-tung*, Vol. I, Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1965, p. 181., thereby raising the principle of constructing a Marxist military philosophy that combines military theory with military reality. Guided by this principle, Mao Zedong, by revealing the essence and status of war phenomena, explained the conditions of war movements and the factors determining victory or defeat in war, creating a historical view of war and a view of victory and defeat; by revealing the basic forms of war practice and their laws of transformation, he explained the methodological basis of strategy and tactics, creating a theory of the laws of war movement.

《中国革命战争的战略问题》是一部战争实践史与军事哲学理论相统一的著作，是中国化的马克思主义军事哲学形成的标志。该文突出强调“从一般战争的规律”到“特殊的革命战争的规律”,再到中国革命战争运行机制的战争研究视角转换的重要性，指明认识战争规律所遵循的从普遍性到特殊性的思维路向。鉴于党内只研究苏式战争规律和条令的学风，毛泽东指出，苏联战争经验固然需要尊重，但更“应该尊重中国革命战争的经验”(,这就提出了将军事理论与军事实际相结合的马克思主义军事哲学构建原则。在此原则指导下，毛泽东通过揭示战争现象的本质与地位，阐释了战争运动的条件和决定战争胜负的要素，创建了战争的历史观与胜负观；通过揭示战争实践的基本形式及其转化规律，阐释了战略战术的方法论基础，创建了战争运动规律论。

*On Protracted War* is a mature work of the Sinicized Marxist military philosophy. In terms of research content, Mao Zedong applied the general military philosophical theories previously summarized and generalized to the special field of Chinese military warfare, comprehensively exploring the roots and essence of war, the relationships between war and politics, the army, and the people, and the laws and principles of China’s revolutionary war, putting forward the important thesis that politics conditions war and that “the soldiers and the people are the foundation of victory.” In terms of logical structure, this text is a model of applying the methods of ascending from the abstract to the concrete and the unity of history and logic. It proceeds from the abstract concept of “the War of Resistance Against Japan” to the concrete concept reflecting the two sides of the war, “a life-and-death war between semi-colonial and semi-feudal China and imperialist Japan in the 1930s,” and then, through the analysis of the internal contradictions of the various aspects of the war, deduces more concrete concepts, namely the collection of four pairs of contradictions: the enemy is strong and we are weak, the enemy is large and we are small, the enemy is retrogressive and we are progressive, and the enemy is isolated and we have much support, and from this draws the general conclusion: “The War of Resistance Against Japan is a protracted war, and the final victory will be China’s.” The deductive process of the concept of “the War of Resistance Against Japan” from the abstract to the concrete is not only a historical process from raising questions to solving them, from understanding the war to striving for victory in the war, but also a process in which a series of Sinicized Marxist military philosophical categories, such as the concept of war, the essence of war, the forms of war movement, and the basic elements of war, are continuously interpreted.

《论持久战》是中国化的马克思主义军事哲学成熟之作。在研究内容上，毛泽东将过去归纳总结的一般军事哲学理论应用于中国军事战争这一特殊领域，整体探讨了战争的根源本质，战争同政治、军队、民众的关系等中国革命战争的规律、原则，提出政治制约战争和“兵民是胜利之本”的重要论断。在逻辑结构上，该文是运用抽象上升为具体、历史与逻辑相统一方法的典范。它从“抗日战争”这一抽象概念，进入“半殖民地半封建的中国和帝国主义的日本之间在二十世纪三十年代进行的一个决死的战争”这个反映战争两方面的具体概念，再由对战争各个方面内部矛盾的分析，推论出更为具体的概念，即敌强我弱、敌小我大、敌退步我进步、敌寡助我多助这四对矛盾合集，并据此得出总结论：“抗日战争是持久战，最后胜利是中国的。”“抗日战争”概念从抽象到具体的推演过程，不仅是从提出问题到解决问题、从对战争的认识到争取战争胜利的历史过程，更是从战争概念到战争本质、战争运动形式、战争基本要素等一系列中国化的马克思主义军事哲学范畴不断被诠释的过程。

Furthermore, the Sinicized Marxist military philosophy also critically inherited the ancient Chinese simple materialist view of war and the idealist military dialectics of Western bourgeois thinkers such as Clausewitz, along with other outstanding military heritages from ancient and modern times, both Chinese and foreign, opening up a new realm of integration between China, the West, and Marxism.

此外，中国化的马克思主义军事哲学还批判地继承了中国古代朴素唯物论的战争观和西方资产阶级如克劳塞维茨唯心论的军事辩证法等古今中外优秀军事遗产，开辟了中西马融合的新境界。

(II) Oriented toward revolutionary political practice, constructing a Sinicized Marxist political philosophy

(二)面向革命政治实践，构建中国化的马克思主义政治哲学

The Sinicized Marxist political philosophy is a doctrine concerning the intrinsic essence and laws of Chinese political life. During the Yan’an period, Mao Zedong wrote numerous political masterpieces, including *On New Democracy*, which brought the Sinicized Marxist political philosophy to increasing perfection. Its contributions are concentrated in two points: First, it put forward the new category of “New Democracy.” The social nature of China determines the inevitability of the two-step process of the democratic revolution and the socialist revolution. The first step is to transform the semi-feudal and semi-colonial society into an independent democratic society; the second step is to continue the revolution and transform the democratic society into a socialist society. Taking the May Fourth Movement of 1919 as the boundary, Mao Zedong divided China’s democratic revolution into two stages, the old and the new, emphasizing that the new stage is under the command of the world revolution, is a new-democratic revolution led by China’s proletariat, its revolutionary targets are imperialism, feudalism, and bureaucratic capital, its revolutionary motive forces are mainly the working and peasant classes, and its ultimate goal is to build a new-democratic state under the joint dictatorship of all revolutionary classes. Second, it scientifically defined the connotations of “state system” and “system of government.” Mao Zedong pointed out that the “state system” “is the status of the various social classes in the state.” Apart from the existing state systems of the bourgeois dictatorship and the proletarian dictatorship, there is also a republic under the joint dictatorship of several revolutionary classes. China’s new-democratic republic is this transitional state form, which at the present time “is the form of the anti-Japanese united front. It is anti-Japanese, opposing imperialism; it is also a united front of several revolutionary classes.” The “system of government” is “the form in which a given social class organizes its organs of state power to oppose the enemy and protect itself. Without appropriate organs of state power, it cannot represent the state.” This passage both defines the connotation of the system of government and explains its function. Through a systematic interpretation of the dialectical relationship between the two, Mao Zedong thoroughly criticized the fascist theory of the Kuomintang of “one doctrine, one leader, one party,” affirmed the rationality of establishing a state system under the joint dictatorship of all revolutionary classes and a political system of democratic centralism that correspond to the New Democratic Revolution, and made a basic institutional design for the new-democratic republic. Furthermore, by explaining the relationships among the various classes in the revolution, Mao Zedong established the political subject status of the people; by explaining the dialectical relationships between politics and the military, economy, and culture, he revealed the essence and laws of politics. Some scholars, according to the importance of the political category in Chinese Marxist philosophy, regard Mao Zedong’s philosophy as a political philosophy.

中国化的马克思主义政治哲学是关于中国政治生活内在本质和规律的学说。延安时期，毛泽东写下包括《新民主主义论》在内的众多政治杰作，使中国化的马克思主义政治哲学日臻完善。其贡献集中在两点：一是提出“新民主主义”新范畴。中国的社会性质决定民主主义革命与社会主义革命两步走的必然性，第一步是改半封建半殖民社会为独立型民主主义社会，第二步是继续革命，转民主主义社会为社会主义社会。毛泽东以1919年五四运动为界，将我国民主革命作出旧新两阶段划分，强调新阶段处于整个世界革命麾下，是由中国无产者领导的新民主主义革命，其革命对象是帝国主义、封建主义和官僚资本，革命动力主要为工农阶级，最终目标是建成各革命阶级联合专政的新民主主义国家。二是科学界定“国体”“政体”内涵。毛泽东指出，“国体”“就是社会各阶级在国家中的地位”,现有的国家体制除资产阶级专政和无产阶级专政的共和国外，还有一种几个革命阶级联合专政的共和国，中国的新民主主义共和国就是这一过渡的国家形式，在当前“就是抗日统一战线的形式。它是抗日的，反对帝国主义的；又是几个革命阶级联合的，统一战线的”。“政体”就是“一定的社会阶级取何种形式去组织那反对敌人保护自己的政权机关。没有适当形式的政权机关，就不能代表国家”,这段话既界定了政体的内涵，又讲明了其功能。通过系统解读二者的辩证关系，毛泽东彻底批评了国民党“一个主义、一个领袖、一个政党”的法西斯理论，申明了建立同新民主主义革命相符的各革命阶级联合专政的国家制度和民主集中的政治制度的合理性，对新民主主义共和国作出基本制度的设计。此外，毛泽东通过阐释各阶级在革命中的关系，确立人民的政治主体地位；通过阐释政治同军事、经济、文化间的辩证关系，揭示政治的本质和规律。有学者依照政治范畴在中国马克思主义哲学中的重要性，将毛泽东哲学视为政治哲学。

(III) Adhering to the principle of the unity of world outlook and methodology, constructing a Sinicized Marxist philosophical methodology

(三)坚持世界观和方法论相统一原则，构建中国化的马克思主义哲学方法论

The theoretical characteristic of Marxist philosophy lies not only in its correct reflection of the laws of development of human society but also in its being a methodological tool for carrying out revolutionary activities. Engels emphasized countless times: “Marx’s whole world outlook is not a doctrine, but a method.” [23]23 Friedrich Engels, letter to Werner Sombart, March 11, 1895, in *Marx and Engels Correspondence*, International Publishers, 1968. In discussing the identity of the two, Mao Zedong pointed out: “Dialectical materialism is the world outlook of the proletariat, and at the same time it is the method of the proletariat for understanding the surrounding world and for revolutionary action; it is the unity of world outlook and methodology.” The era Mao Zedong experienced and the tasks he faced were different from those of the classical writers. Marx and Engels, who were in the initial stage of theory-building, were mainly busy with the construction of the world outlook of “practical materialism,” while Lenin focused more on theoretical development in the epistemological dimension; neither had much energy to spare for the issue of philosophical methodology. To adapt theory to the particularities of practice, Mao Zedong took on the task of interpreting Marxist philosophical methodology during the Yan’an period, writing a series of papers exploring methodology, thereby promoting the maturation of the Sinicized Marxist philosophical methodology.

马克思主义哲学的理论特质不仅在于对人类社会发展规律的正确反映，更是革命活动开展的方法论工具。恩格斯曾无数次强调：“马克思的整个世界观不是教义，而是方法。”毛泽东在谈到二者的同一性时指出：“辩证法唯物论是无产阶级的宇宙观，同时又是无产阶级认识周围世界的方法和革命行动的方法；它是宇宙观和方法论的一致体。”毛泽东所经历的时代、面临的任务与经典作家不同，处于理论起步阶段的马恩主要忙于“实践唯物主义”世界观的建构，列宁则偏重于在认识论维度作理论发挥，都没有太多精力顾及哲学方法论的问题。为使理论适应实践的特殊性，毛泽东在延安时期担起诠释马克思主义哲学方法论的重任，撰写了一系列探讨方法论的论文，促进中国化的马克思主义哲学方法论的成熟。

The sinicized Marxist philosophical methodology is a philosophical methodology system with unique Chinese wisdom, transformed from the Marxist worldview. In terms of its types, Mao Zedong divided it into three kinds: methods of thought, methods of leadership, and methods of work. Among these, methods of work are the concrete embodiment and application of methods of thought, while methods of leadership are the concrete embodiment and application of methods of work at the leadership level. In terms of its hierarchical structure, it is first composed of a group of general methods formed by high-level methods. During the Yan’an period, Mao Zedong emphasized more frequently the methods of seeking truth from facts, contradiction analysis, investigation and research, the mass line, and independence and self-reliance. Second, it is composed of a group of concrete methods derived from the general methods. For example, the investigation and research method, on which Mao Zedong wrote extensively, was concretized into the method of “skimming over flowers from horseback” [24]24 “Skimming over flowers from horseback” (走马观花) is a Chinese idiom meaning to gain a superficial understanding through quick observation; here it refers to a method of rapid, broad investigation. for going deep among the masses, the method of “dissecting a sparrow” [25]25 “Dissecting a sparrow” (解剖麻雀) is a Chinese idiom for analyzing a typical case in depth to understand the general situation. for finding typical cases in practice, and the method of holding investigation meetings for listening to the views of the masses. The general methods are the foundation of the concrete methods, and the concrete methods are the actual unfolding of the general methods. Together, they constitute a philosophical methodology system in which worldview, epistemology, and methodology are unified as one. The prominent practicality and mass character of the sinicized Marxist philosophical methodology shortened the distance between the masses and philosophy, liberating philosophy from the studies of philosophers.

中国化的马克思主义哲学方法论是由马克思主义世界观转化而来的一个独具中国智慧的哲学方法论体系。就其类型而言，毛泽东将其划分为思想方法、领导方法和工作方法三种，其中，工作方法是思想方法的具体体现及运用，领导方法是工作方法在领导层面的具体体现及运用。就其层次结构来说，首先是由高层次方法组成的一般方法群，延安时期毛泽东强调较多的有实事求是方法、矛盾分析方法、调查研究方法、群众路线方法和独立自主方法，其次是由一般方法派生而来的具体方法群，如毛泽东着墨较多的调查研究法就具体化为深入群众的“走马观花”法、在实际中找典型的“解剖麻雀”法、倾听群众观点的开调查会法等。一般方法是具体方法的基础，具体方法是一般方法的现实展开，两者构成世界观、认识论、方法论三者合一的哲学方法论系统。中国化的马克思主义哲学方法论突出的实践性和群众性，拉近了群众和哲学的距离，把哲学从哲学家的书斋里解放了出来。

IV. The Ideological Line of Seeking Truth from Facts and the Final Establishment of the First Theoretical Form of Chinese Marxist Philosophy

四、实事求是思想路线和中国马克思主义哲学第一个理论形态的最终确立

As a product of practice, the emergence and development of Chinese Marxist philosophy, like practice itself, are characterized by protractedness and tortuousness. As mentioned above, at that time various non-proletarian ideological forces within the Party were quite powerful, which was detrimental to the promotion of Mao Zedong’s philosophical thought throughout the Party. Through the rectification movement, Mao Zedong completely eliminated the long-standing confused subjectivist notions within the Party, established the ideological line of seeking truth from facts, unified the thought and action of the entire Party, and thereby enabled the establishment of the first theoretical form of Chinese Marxist philosophy.

作为实践的产物，中国马克思主义哲学的生发和实践一样，都具有长期性、曲折性的特点。正如前述，当时党内各种非无产阶级思想势力不小，不利于毛泽东哲学思想在全党的推广。毛泽东通过整风运动，完全肃清了党内长期存在的主观主义糊涂观念，确立了实事求是思想路线，统一了全党的思想和行动，使中国马克思主义哲学第一个理论形态得以确立。

(I) Launching the Rectification Movement to Declare War on Subjectivism, Laying a Solid Foundation for the Innovative Development of Chinese Marxist Philosophy

(一)开展整风运动对主观主义宣战，为中国马克思主义哲学的创新发展夯实地基

Chinese Marxist philosophy underwent a long historical process from its maturation to guiding the entire Party. To complete this historical process, in addition to the conformity of the theory itself with objective laws, it was equally necessary to build, within the whole Party, a political soil and ideological consensus that would enable the theory to be widely accepted. But looking at the reality, from the start of the full-scale War of Resistance Against Japan in 1937 to 1940, the number of Party members surged sharply from only 40,000 to 800,000. At that time, the dogmatic style within the Party had not been fundamentally cured, while the newly joined Party members lacked a high level of Marxist theoretical cultivation and the awareness of integrating theory with practice, making them susceptible to subjectivism. If the harm of non-proletarian factors could not be eliminated, there could be no question of the innovative development of Chinese Marxist philosophy. The rectification movement was precisely launched based on the urgent need to promptly summarize the historical experiences and lessons of the Party. Among its tasks, resolving the contradiction within the Party between Marxism and subjectivism was the core of the rectification. As the initiator, Mao Zedong actively took up the banner, publishing a series of programmatic articles such as “Reform Our Study,” “Rectify the Party’s Style of Work,” and “Oppose Stereotyped Party Writing,” comprehensively demonstrating the essence, manifestations, characteristics, roots, harms, and corrective measures of subjectivism. First, regarding the forms of manifestation. Mao Zedong pointed out that subjectivism has two forms: dogmatization and empiricization, which in revolution manifest as two practical tendencies: “Left” adventurism and Right conservatism. Dogmatism “easily puts on the mask of Marxism,” and is therefore the greatest danger to the revolution. Second, regarding the essence and epistemological roots. Mao Zedong pointed out that dogmatism rejects the revolutionary perceptual experience, “merely swallowing whole some isolated phrases from Marxist books,” while empiricism rejects theory as a guide for practice, and there is blindness in its work. The common epistemological root of the two lies in “departing from the correct understanding of the process,” that is, “not analyzing the specific stages, conditions, and possibilities,” treating “books” or experience as the truth for solving problems, causing a separation between subject and object, theory and practice. Therefore, they are essentially “an incorrect style of study, it is opposed to Marxism-Leninism” — a false Marxism. Third, regarding the actual manifestations and harms. Mao Zedong listed such actual manifestations of subjectivism as “failing to make systematic and thorough investigations of the surrounding environment,” “cutting off history, knowing only Greece but not China,” and “studying Marxist-Leninist theory abstractly and without aim.” [26]26 These are quotations from Mao Zedong’s “Reform Our Study” (1941). Standing at the height of the history of the international communist movement, he further emphasized that subjectivism, especially dogmatism, is a great enemy of the Party, the working class, and even the nation. Its consequence is that “if used on oneself, it harms oneself; if used to teach others, it harms others; if used to guide the revolution, it harms the revolution.” Only by resolutely opposing subjectivism can “the truth of Marxism-Leninism hold up its head, Party spirit be consolidated, and the revolution be victorious.” The rectification movement, as a “revolution in the Party’s thought,” broke the shackles of subjectivism on theoretical innovation work and liberated thought for the development of Chinese Marxist philosophy. In the “Resolution on Certain Historical Questions” [27]27 The “Resolution on Certain Historical Questions” was adopted at the Seventh Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the CPC in April 1945, summarizing the Party’s history and criticizing past “Left” and Right errors. adopted at the Seventh Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee of the Party in 1945, Mao Zedong comprehensively settled accounts with the errors of the “Left” line in the past from various levels including politics, military affairs, and thought, and further summarized the principles for opposing subjectivism, including “learn from past mistakes to avoid future ones, and cure the sickness to save the patient” and “both clarify ideas and unite comrades,” [28]28 “Learn from past mistakes to avoid future ones, and cure the sickness to save the patient” (惩前毖后，治病救人) and “both clarify ideas and unite comrades” (既要弄清思想又要团结同志) are principles for inner-Party criticism formulated during the Yan’an rectification. providing a good conclusion to the critique of subjectivism during the Yan’an period.

中国马克思主义哲学从其成熟到指导全党，有一个长期的历史过程。完成这一历史过程，除理论本身的合规律性外，在全党范围内建成使理论被广泛接受的政治土壤和思想共识同样必要。但现实地看，从1937年全面抗战开始到1940年，党员人数从仅4万猛增到80万。当时党内的教条作风并没有得到根治，而新加入的党员又缺乏较高的马克思主义理论素养和理论结合实践的意识，易受主观主义侵蚀，如果不能扫清非无产阶级因素的危害，也就无从谈起中国马克思主义哲学的创新发展。整风运动正是基于及时总结党的历史经验教训的迫切需要而开展的。其中，解决党内马克思主义与主观主义的矛盾是整风的核心。作为倡导者，毛泽东主动扛起大旗，发表《改造我们的学习》《整顿党的作风》《反对党八股》等一系列具有纲领性意义的文章，全面论证了主观主义的实质、表现、特征、根源、危害及纠正办法：一是关于表现形式。毛泽东指出，主观主义有教条化和经验化两种形式，在革命中表现为“左”倾冒险主义和右倾保守主义两种实践倾向。教条主义“容易装出马克思主义的面孔”,因而是革命最大的危害。二是关于实质和认识论根源。毛泽东指出，教条主义拒绝革命的感性经验，“只生吞活剥马克思主义书籍中的只言片语”,而经验主义拒斥以理论为实践导向，工作中存在着盲目性。二者共同的认识论根源在于“离开过程之正确的了解”,即“不分析具体的阶段、条件、可能性”,把“本本”或经验视作解决问题的真理，造成主观与客观、理论和实践相隔离。因此，它们实质上是“一种不正派的学风，它是反对马克思列宁主义的”假马克思主义。三是关于现实表现和危害。毛泽东列举诸如“对周围环境不作系统的周密的研究”“割断历史，只懂得希腊，不懂得中国”“抽象地无目的地去研究马克思列宁主义理论”等主观主义的现实表现,并立足于国际共运史高度进一步强调，主观主义，尤其是教条主义是党、工人阶级乃至民族的大敌，它的后果在于“拿了律己，则害了自己；拿了教人，则害了别人；拿了指导革命，则害了革命”,只有决心反对主观主义，“马克思列宁主义的真理才会抬头，党性才会巩固，革命才会胜利”。整风运动作为一次“党在思想上的革命”运动，打破了主观主义对理论创新工作的束缚，为中国马克思主义哲学的发展解放了思想。在1945年党的六届七中全会上通过的《关于若干历史问题的决议》中，毛泽东从政治、军事、思想等各个层面整体清算了历次“左”倾路线错误，并进一步总结出包括“惩前毖后，治病救人”“既要弄清思想又要团结同志”在内的反对主观主义方针，为延安时期对主观主义的批判工作做了很好的收尾工作。

(II) Systematically Elaborating the Profound Connotation of “Seeking Truth from Facts,” Establishing the Correct Ideological Line for the Party

(二)系统阐释“实事求是”的深刻内涵，为党确立正确的思想路线

Concurrently with advancing the critique of subjectivism, an opposing ideological line of seeking truth from facts gradually became clear. The ideological line is the philosophical principle and foundation the Party follows in analyzing and handling problems. As early as the Jinggangshan period, Mao Zedong had proposed “creating a new situation through struggle in the ideological line.” [29]29 This refers to Mao Zedong’s 1930 article “Oppose Book Worship” (反对本本主义), which originally contained the phrase “creating a new situation through struggle in the ideological line.” At the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee, Mao Zedong demanded that “Communist Party members should be models of seeking truth from facts,” [30]30 This is from Mao Zedong’s report “The Role of the Chinese Communist Party in the National War” at the Sixth Plenary Session of the Sixth Central Committee (October 1938). which was the first time “seeking truth from facts” appeared in the Party’s field of vision. In “On New Democracy,” Mao Zedong interpreted “seeking truth from facts” as a “scientific attitude” opposed to the subjectivist “self-righteousness.” [31]31 “On New Democracy” was published by Mao Zedong in January 1940. In “Reform Our Study,” Mao Zedong formally provided a scientific explanation of the meaning of “seeking truth from facts.” Mao Zedong’s interpretation generally includes three levels: First, proceed from reality in everything. “Facts” (shi shi) refer to things and phenomena independent of the subject; one must take the specific and concrete reality directly related to oneself as the direct object of the subject’s study. Second, seek the laws of objective reality. The movement of things has laws; to seek the “truth” (shi) from the “facts” (shi shi) is to find the internal connections within the facts, discover their laws of motion, in order to guide action to transform the world. Third, fully exert human subjective initiative. From the dimension of concrete reality to the dimension of general law is the unity of the subject’s practical process and the result of thinking. “Seeking” (qiu) is the only path to realize the unity of “facts” (shi shi) and “truth” (shi). The practice of “doing or acting” is the subjective thought of humans acting on objective things, manifested as the characteristic of “conscious initiative” that distinguishes humans from things. Only by fully exerting the subjective initiative of the Party and the people can the practical laws of transforming China be grasped. With Mao Zedong’s explanation and advocacy, the ancient proposition of “seeking truth from facts” became a high-level summary of dialectical materialism and historical materialism, became the core essence of Chinese Marxist philosophy, and through the promotion and dissemination of the Yan’an rectification, the ideological line of seeking truth from facts was established throughout the Party. The establishment of the ideological line of seeking truth from facts was of extraordinary significance for the emergence and development of Chinese Marxist philosophy. The entire Chinese Marxist philosophy, starting from dialectical materialism and historical materialism, unfolds systematic argumentation and exposition on how to adhere to this ideological line.

在推进主观主义批判工作的同时，一条与之相对的实事求是思想路线日渐明朗起来。思想路线是党分析和处理问题所遵循的哲学原则和基础。早在井冈山时期，毛泽东就提出“从斗争中创造新局面的思想路线”。在六届六中全会上，毛泽东要求“共产党员应是实事求是的模范”,这是“实事求是”首次出现在党的视野里。在《新民主主义论》中，毛泽东将“实事求是”释义为与“自以为是”的主观主义相对立的“科学的态度”。在《改造我们的学习》中，毛泽东正式对“实事求是”涵义作了科学阐释，毛泽东的解读总体包含三个层面：第一，一切从实际出发。“实事”即独立于主体以外的物及现象，要把与自己有直接关系的特殊的具体的实际作为主体研究的直接对象。第二，寻求客观实际的规律。事物的运动是有规律的，“实事”中求“是”,就是从实事中找出其内部联系，发现其运动规律，以指导改造世界的行动。第三，充分发挥人的主观能动性。从具体实际维度到一般规律维度，是主体实践过程与思考结果的统一，“求”是实现“实事”和“是”统一的唯一进路，“做或行动”的实践就是人的主观思想作用于客观事物，表现为人与物相区别的“自觉的能动性”特征，只有充分发挥党和人民的主观能动性，才能掌握改造中国的实践规律。有了毛泽东的解释和倡导，“实事求是”这个古老命题成为辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义的高度概括，成为中国马克思主义哲学的内核精髓，经过延安整风的发扬传授，实事求是思想路线得以在全党确立。实事求是思想路线的确立对于中国马克思主义哲学的发生发展意义非凡，整个中国马克思主义哲学就是从辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义出发，就如何坚持这一条思想路线而展开系统论证和论述的。

(III) The Establishment of the First Theoretical Form of Chinese Marxist Philosophy — Mao Zedong Thought’s Guiding Position in the Entire Party

(三)中国马克思主义哲学首个理论形态——毛泽东哲学思想在全党指导地位的确立

With the advancement of the Rectification Movement, Chinese Communists gradually came to realize that only Mao Zedong Thought could lead the Chinese revolution to victory. Beginning in 1941, theoretical experts within the Party such as Zhang Ruxin and Ai Siqi began to comment on, publicize, and study Mao Zedong’s philosophical thought. In July 1943, Wang Jiaxiang publicly used the concept of “Mao Zedong Thought” for the first time and pointed out that Mao Zedong Thought “is Chinese Marxism-Leninism, Chinese Bolshevism, and Chinese communism.” [32]32 Wang Jiaxiang (1906–1974) was a senior leader of the CPC. The term “Bolshevism” here refers to the Leninist revolutionary line of the Russian Bolshevik Party. Thereafter, propaganda articles on Mao Zedong Thought became widespread. In April 1945, the Communist Party of China convened its Seventh National Congress in Yan’an, at which Liu Shaoqi delivered the report “On the Party,” which for the first time provided a scientific summary and systematic exposition of the origins, historical significance, basic characteristics, and main content of Mao Zedong Thought. The report pointed out that Mao Zedong Thought arose in the struggle against enemies both at home and abroad, especially in the struggle against various unhealthy tendencies within the Party, and that the worldview it reflected “is the thought that unifies the theory of Marxism-Leninism with the practice of the Chinese revolution, that is, Chinese communism, Chinese Marxism.” [33]33 Liu Shaoqi (1898–1969) was a key CPC leader and theorist. His report “On the Party” was a major document of the Seventh Congress. On this basis, the Constitution of the Communist Party of China adopted at the Seventh Congress formally designated Mao Zedong Thought as the guiding ideology of the Party. Mao Zedong Thought represents the first historic leap in Chinese Marxism, and Mao Zedong’s philosophical thought is the philosophical branch of Chinese Marxism. The convening of the Seventh Congress marked that Chinese Marxist philosophy was no longer just an article, a book, or a report, but was presented before the entire Party in the complete form of a theoretical system. From then on, the Chinese path acquired a Marxist philosophical representation with Chinese characteristics.

随着整风运动的推进，中国共产党人逐渐意识到，只有毛泽东思想才能引领中国革命取得胜利。从1941年开始，党内诸如张如心、艾思奇等理论专家开始述评、宣传、研究毛泽东哲学思想。1943年7月，王稼祥首次公开使用“毛泽东思想”概念并指出，毛泽东思想“是中国的马克思列宁主义，中国的布尔什维主义，中国的共产主义”。此后，关于毛泽东思想的宣传文章普及开来。1945年4月，中国共产党在延安召开了第七次全国代表大会，刘少奇作了《论党》的报告，首次对毛泽东思想的根源、历史意义、基本特点和主要内容作了科学概括与系统阐述。报告指出，毛泽东思想是在反对国内外敌人，特别是在与党内各种不良倾向的斗争中崛起的，它所反映的宇宙观，“就是马克思列宁主义的理论与中国革命的实践之统一的思想，就是中国的共产主义，中国的马克思主义”。基于此，七大通过的《中国共产党党章》正式把毛泽东思想规定为党的指导思想。毛泽东思想是中国马克思主义第一次历史性飞跃，毛泽东哲学思想就是中国马克思主义的哲学分支。七大的召开标志着中国马克思主义哲学不只是一篇文章、一本著作、一次报告，而是以理论完全体形态呈现在全党面前。中国道路从此有了中国特色的马克思主义哲学表征。

V. Conclusion

五、结语

During the Yan’an period, Mao Zedong created Chinese Marxist philosophy precisely on the basis of “integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s specific realities and with the fine traditional Chinese culture.” [34]34 This is a direct quotation of the formulation of the “Two Integrations,” a core principle of Xi Jinping Thought. From the perspective of theoretical attributes, Chinese Marxist philosophy belongs to the broad theoretical lineage of Marxist philosophy and truly achieves the inheritance of the truth and righteousness of Marxist philosophy; from the perspective of the development process of Marxist philosophy, Chinese Marxist philosophy exhibits distinctive characteristics completely different from Marxist philosophical forms in other regions; from the perspective of the logic of theoretical formation, Chinese Marxist philosophy was formed through resolute and repeated struggles against dogmatism, careful reflection on the debate between modern Chinese and Western cultures, and rational summation of the valuable practical experience in the process of “concretizing” Marxism, thereby creating the Party’s innovative philosophical theory and “realizing the modern ideological enlightenment of the Chinese people.” [35]35 The phrase “concretizing” Marxism refers to the process of adapting Marxist theory to specific national conditions, a key theme in Mao’s thought.

延安时期，毛泽东正是在“把马克思主义基本原理同中国具体实际相结合、同中华优秀传统文化相结合”的基础上创建了中国马克思主义哲学。从理论属性来看，中国马克思主义哲学隶属于马克思主义哲学的大理论谱系，真正做到了对马克思主义哲学真理和道义的继承；从马克思主义哲学发展历程来看，中国马克思主义哲学展现了完全不同于其他地域马克思主义哲学形态的出彩特性；从理论的形成逻辑来看，中国马克思主义哲学是在同教条主义作坚决而反复的斗争，慎思近代中西文化之辩，理性总结马克思主义“具体化”进程中宝贵实践经验形成党的创新哲学理论，进而“实现了中国人民的现代思想启蒙”。

(Author’s bio: Wang Yan, Department of Philosophy, Nanjing University)

（作者简介：王炎，南京大学哲学系）

Online editor: Tongxin

网络编辑：同心