Excavating and Rationally Drawing on the Excellent Traditional Chinese Economic Thought

Production, distribution, exchange, and consumption are the four links in the social reproduction theory of Marxist political economy. Traditional Chinese economic thought contains rich wisdom in these four areas. Excavating these intellectual achievements and drawing on them rationally will certainly assist the further development of socialist economic practice and theoretical innovation with Chinese characteristics.

生产、分配、交换、消费是马克思主义政治经济学社会再生产理论的四个环节，中国传统经济思想在这四个领域蕴含着丰富的智慧，对这些智慧成果进行挖掘并合理借鉴，必将助力中国特色社会主义经济实践与理论创新的进一步发展。

Traditional production wisdom such as “the teaching on fully utilizing the land’s productive power”

“尽地力之教”等传统生产智慧

In traditional Chinese small-scale peasant economy, the ratio of population to land was generally high, so adopting various methods to increase per-unit-area yield became the main production goal. Among the various ideas for raising land productivity, “the teaching on fully utilizing the land’s productive power” is relatively typical; its first proponent was Li Kui, who promoted reforms in the state of Wei during the Warring States period. In ancient China’s small-scale peasant economic system, land and labor were the two most important factors of production. To raise per-unit-area output, the most effective approach was to promote close integration of the two and to adopt various measures to improve the efficiency of each factor. On the one hand, Li Kui distributed wasteland to landless peasants for cultivation, accelerating the combination of land and labor as factors of production. On the other hand, he required laborers to “tend the fields diligently and carefully” when planting, so as to fully utilize the land’s fertility, while also planting multiple crops to prevent severe losses from natural disasters in the case of monocropping, and to hasten the harvest at reaping time to prevent wind and rain from damaging the crops. This is a very typical intensive-farming production concept. Li Kui’s “teaching on fully utilizing the land’s productive power” made an important contribution to the wealth and strength of the state of Wei, and his ideas on intensive land management and agricultural administration also had a significant impact on later generations. Techniques such as crop rotation, intercropping, multiple cropping, the paired planting of shade-loving and sun-loving plants, and the mulberry-fish-pond ecological planting model emerged one after another. The Chinese people, with an embroiderer’s spirit, continuously emancipated and developed the productive forces, so that the efficiency of agricultural production in ancient China far exceeded that of the West. Taking the ratio of grain harvest to seed sown as an example, in Western Europe it was 4 to 5 times, while in China in the 6th century CE, the harvest of millet was 24 to 200 times the amount sown, and for wheat it was 44 to 200 times. From a synchronic comparative perspective, this achievement is quite remarkable.

中国传统小农经济的人地比总体较高，采用各种办法提高单位面积产量成为主要生产目标。在提高土地生产效率的各种思想中，“尽地力之教”较为典型，首倡者为战国时期在魏国推动变法的李悝。在中国古代小农经济体系中，土地和劳动力是最主要的两种生产要素，要想提高单位面积的产量，最有效的做法是促使两者紧密结合，并采取各种措施分别提高这两种要素的使用效率。一方面，李悝把荒地分给无地农民耕种，促使土地和劳动力这两种生产要素加快结合；另一方面，他要求劳动者在种植时“治田勤谨”，以充分使用地力，同时种植多种作物，以防单一种植时作物因自然灾害遭受严重损失，在收获时加紧抢收，以防风雨对庄稼的损害，这是非常典型的精耕细作式生产思想。李悝的“尽地力之教”为魏国的富强作出重要贡献，其集约式土地经营与农业管理思想对后世亦产生重要影响。轮作倒茬、间作套种、多熟种植、喜阴与喜阳植物搭配种植、桑基鱼塘式生态种植等技术层出不穷，中国人用绣花式精神不断解放和发展生产力，从而使中国古代的农业生产效率远远高于西方。以粮食收获量和播种量之比为例，西欧是4至5倍，而中国公元6世纪粟的收获量为播种量的24至200倍，麦类则为44至200倍，以共时性的比较视角来看，这种成绩相当令人瞩目。

“Emancipating and developing the productive forces” is the core content of the theory of the essence of socialism and an important component of socialist political economy with Chinese characteristics. Only by achieving this can we, on the basis of continuously developing socialist material civilization, resolve the various contradictions we face. The production wisdom accumulated in such ancient Chinese production ideas as “the teaching on fully utilizing the land’s productive power,” which aims to continuously emancipate and develop the productive forces by utilizing all factors of production and management methods, should be further excavated in the contemporary era.

“解放生产力、发展生产力”是社会主义本质论的核心内容，亦是中国特色社会主义政治经济学的重要内容。只有做到这一点，才能在不断发展社会主义物质文明的基础上，解决我们所面临的各种矛盾。积淀在“尽地力之教”等中国古人生产思想之中、旨在利用一切生产要素和管理方法不断解放和发展生产力的生产智慧应当在当代被进一步挖掘。

Traditional distribution wisdom such as “storing wealth among the people”

“藏富于民”等传统分配智慧

The people-oriented thought represented by “the people are the foundation of the state; when the foundation is secure, the state is tranquil” and “revere virtue and protect the people” is the political foundation of traditional Chinese social governance. Confucius’s “practice frugality and love the people, employ the people according to the seasons,” Mencius’s “the people are of supreme importance; the altars of the soil and grain come next; the ruler is the least important,” Xunzi’s “the ruler is the boat, the common people are the water. The water can carry the boat, and the water can capsize it,” the *Guanzi*’s “the rise of government lies in following the people’s hearts; the fall of government lies in going against the people’s hearts,” and Li Yiji’s “the king takes the people as his heaven, and the people take food as their heaven” — all these ideas emphasize the importance of the people.

以“民惟邦本，本固邦宁”“敬德保民”为代表的民本思想是中国传统社会治理的政治底色，孔子的“节用而爱民，使民以时”、孟子的“民为贵，社稷次之，君为轻”、荀子的“君者，舟也，庶人者，水也。水则载舟，水则覆舟”、《管子》的“政之所兴在顺民心，政之所废在逆民心”、郦食其的“王者以民为天，而民以食为天”等思想皆强调了民本的重要性。

Influenced by this, the mainstream traditional Chinese distribution thought tended toward “storing wealth among the people” or national wealth based on popular wealth. Representative ideas include: You Ruo’s “if the people are sufficient, how can the ruler be insufficient? If the people are insufficient, how can the ruler be sufficient?”; Mencius’s “share with the people”; Xunzi’s “enrich both above and below”; the *Guanzi*’s “the way to govern a state is first to enrich the people”; and Tang Zhen’s “wealth lies among the common households, not in the state treasury.” These ideas collectively explore the importance of popular wealth, holding that state finances come from the people; only when the people are wealthy can the source of taxation never dry up, and can the state be wealthy. Moreover, popular wealth is also the material guarantee for high-level social governance. Confucius’s “first enrich, then teach,” the *Guanzi*’s “when granaries are full, the people know propriety and honor; when food and clothing are sufficient, they know glory and disgrace,” and Mencius’s “the way of the people is this: those with constant property have constant hearts” — these ideas all clearly expound the strong correlation between popular wealth and governance.

受此影响，中国传统主流分配思想倾向于“藏富于民”或民富基础上的国富。代表性思想有：有若的“百姓足，君孰与不足？百姓不足，君孰与足？”，孟子的“与百姓同之”，荀子的“上下俱富”，管子的“凡治国之道，必先富民”，唐甄的“富在编户、不在府库”等，这些思想集中探讨了民富的重要性，认为国家财政来源于民，只有民富，才能保证赋税之源永不枯竭，才能实现国富。此外，民富亦是社会高水平治理的物质保障，孔子的“富而后教”、《管子》的“仓廪实而知礼节，衣食足而知荣辱”、孟子的“民之为道也，有恒产者有恒心”等思想皆清晰阐述了民富与治理的强关联性。

“People-centeredness” is the political stance of socialist practice with Chinese characteristics, and common prosperity is the essential requirement of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Comrade Deng Xiaoping emphasized that socialism, through emancipating and developing the productive forces, aims to achieve “the elimination of exploitation, the elimination of polarization, and ultimately the attainment of common prosperity.” The Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC pointed out: “Improve the income distribution system. Build a coordinated system of primary distribution, redistribution, and tertiary distribution, raise the share of household income in national income distribution, and raise the share of labor remuneration in primary distribution.” At present, solidly promoting common prosperity requires resolving the problem of unbalanced and inadequate development. The distribution wisdom contained in such traditional distribution ideas as “storing wealth among the people” is worthy of rational reference in the contemporary era.

“以人民为中心”是中国特色社会主义实践的政治立场，共同富裕是中国特色社会主义的本质要求。邓小平同志强调，社会主义就是要通过解放和发展生产力，实现“消灭剥削、消除两极分化，最终达到共同富裕”的目的。党的二十届三中全会指出，“完善收入分配制度。构建初次分配、再分配、第三次分配协调配套的制度体系，提高居民收入在国民收入分配中的比重，提高劳动报酬在初次分配中的比重”。当前，扎实推动共同富裕必须解决发展不平衡不充分问题，蕴含在“藏富于民”等传统分配思想之中的分配智慧在当代值得被理性借鉴。

Traditional exchange wisdom such as “sell when prices are high as if discarding dirt; buy when prices are low as if acquiring pearls and jade”

“贵出如粪土，贱取如珠玉”等传统交换智慧

The ancient Chinese accumulated rich experience in business management and wealth accumulation in the commercial sphere, the most representative of which is the “Strategy of Ji Ran.” The *Records of the Grand Historian: Biographies of the Merchants* systematically introduces its content, including the summary of price trends that “when prices rise to the extreme, they inevitably fall; when prices fall to the extreme, they inevitably rise”; the unconventional operational responses of “sell when prices are high as if discarding dirt; buy when prices are low as if acquiring pearls and jade” and “in drought, prepare boats; in flood, prepare carts”; the empirical summary of circulation speed such as “do not let money lie idle,” “do not dare to hoard at high prices,” and “let wealth and currency circulate like flowing water”; and the experience of quality control such as “ensure goods are in perfect condition” and “do not store goods that rot and spoil.” The effects of these strategies were very evident: “after practicing them for ten years, the state became wealthy.” Fan Li used the Strategy of Ji Ran and “in nineteen years, made a fortune three times.” Bai Gui, while emphasizing “what others discard, I take; what others take, I give,” also focused on catering to the consumer market, stressing that “to increase profits, deal in inferior grains.” In addition, he valued seizing business opportunities, believing that once the opportunity matured, one must act decisively, “moving as swiftly as a fierce beast or a bird of prey.” It is not difficult to see that through careful observation, the ancient Chinese had keenly discovered certain objective laws in the sphere of commodity production and circulation, rationally utilized them, and reaped considerable gains.

中国古人在商业领域积淀了有关经营管理、积聚财富的丰厚经验，其中最有代表性的是“计然之策”。《史记·货殖列传》对其内容进行了系统介绍，包括“贵上极则反贱，贱下极则反贵”的价格变动趋势总结、“贵出如粪土，贱取如珠玉”“旱则资舟，水则资车”的非常规操作手段应对、“无息币”“无敢居贵”“财币欲其行如流水”的流通速度经验归纳、“务完物”“腐败而食之货勿留”的商品品质把控经验等。这些策略的效果非常明显，“修之十年，国富”。范蠡用计然之策，“十九年之中三致千金”。白圭则在强调“人弃我取，人取我与”的同时，又注重迎合消费市场，强调“欲长钱，取下谷”。此外，他还重视捕捉商机，认为一旦机会成熟，要当机立断，“趋时若猛兽鸷鸟之发”。不难看出，通过审慎观察，中国古人已敏锐发现了商品生产和流通领域的一些客观规律，并对之加以合理利用，且收获颇丰。

At the macro-management level, the ancient Chinese also had macro-control ideas that followed market laws and rationally utilized market laws for state governance. On the one hand, observing the market price and social operation laws that “when goods are cheap, they are sought after for their high price; when goods are expensive, they are sought after for their low price; each person devotes himself to his occupation and takes pleasure in his work, like water flowing downward, day and night without rest, coming without being summoned, and the people producing without being asked,” Sima Qian put forward the theory of “good governance follows it,” emphasizing compliance with market prices and the inherent laws of social development, following their internal order. On the other hand, the *Guanzi* emphasized the necessity of actively utilizing market laws for rational guidance. Based on observations such as “when goods are concentrated, prices rise; when dispersed, prices fall” and “when goods are stored, prices rise; when released, prices fall,” the *Guanzi* proposed the macro-control approach of “using heavy currency to buy light goods, and using cheap goods to stabilize high prices.” It held that when goods are abundant and prices are low, one can use heavy currency to buy light goods; when goods are scarce and prices rise, one can sell the goods previously purchased at low prices at a price lower than the market price. This practice can both generate profit and stabilize market prices, thereby achieving “the power of light and heavy” through “the technique of light and heavy.”

宏观管理层面，中国古人亦有着遵循市场规律与合理利用市场规律进行国家治理的宏观调控思想。一方面，观察到“物贱之征贵，贵之征贱，各劝其业，乐其事，若水之趋下，日夜无休时，不召而自来，不求而民出之”的市场价格及社会运行规律，司马迁提出“善者因之”的善因论，强调顺应市场价格及社会内在发展规律，遵循其内在秩序；另一方面，《管子》则强调积极利用市场规律进行合理引导的必要性。基于“聚则重，散则轻”“藏则重，发则轻”等现实观察，《管子》提出“以重射轻，以贱泄平”的宏观调控主张，认为可在商品充足、物价较低时，用重币购买轻物，在商品匮乏物价上涨时，把过去低价购买的商品以低于市场价格抛售，此举既可盈利，还可平抑市场物价，进而以“轻重之术”实现“轻重之势”。

The Third Plenary Session of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC emphasized the need to “build a high-level socialist market economy system.” The law of value, the law of supply and demand, and the law of competition in the commodity economy will inevitably play a more significant role in promoting the construction of a high-level socialist market economy system. Macro-control that respects and rationally utilizes market laws has become an important factor affecting the optimal allocation of resources. As a reference, the exchange wisdom deposited in such traditional Chinese exchange ideas as the “Strategy of Ji Ran,” which reflects the ancient Chinese’s skill in discovering and utilizing the laws of commodity circulation, has important contemporary mirror value.

党的二十届三中全会强调，要“构建高水平社会主义市场经济体制”，商品经济的价值规律、供求规律与竞争规律必将更显著地在推动构建高水平社会主义市场经济体制之中发挥作用，尊重并合理利用市场规律的宏观调控成为影响资源最优配置的重要因素。作为参照，沉淀在“计然之策”等中国传统交换思想中、体现中国古人善于发现与利用商品流通规律的交换智慧有着重要的当代镜鉴价值。

Traditional consumption wisdom such as “use it for the people”

“用之于民”等传统消费智慧

The frugal consumption ideas of “living within one’s means” and “using things with restraint” form the keynote of traditional Chinese consumption thought. However, many scholars have also noted the positive social effects of “consolidating the foundation” and “benefiting the people” generated by the government’s active consumption in the area of people’s livelihoods, where it is “spent on the people.” Public expenditure in areas of people’s livelihoods such as national defense, education, disaster relief, and water conservancy constituted the main component of fiscal expenditure in traditional Chinese society, and scholars of successive dynasties attached great importance to it. *Xunzi* regarded the provision of public goods such as “repairing dikes and bridges, dredging ditches and waterways, draining waterlogging, stabilizing water storage, and opening and closing sluices at the proper times” as the government’s most important duty. [22]22 *Xunzi*: a foundational text of Confucian philosophy compiled by the Warring States period thinker Xun Kuang (c. 310–c. 235 BCE). Sima Qian, in the “Treatise on Rivers and Canals” of the *Records of the Grand Historian*, [23]23 *Records of the Grand Historian* (*Shiji*): the monumental history of ancient China written by Sima Qian (c. 145–c. 86 BCE), covering from the mythical Yellow Emperor to his own time. gave heartfelt affirmation to the construction of water conservancy projects such as Yu’s dredging of the Nine Rivers, the Zhengguo Canal of the Qin state, and the Cao Canal of the Han dynasty, as well as their positive effects in benefiting the masses and promoting economic development, such as “their merit extending to the Three Dynasties,” “the Guanzhong region becoming fertile land without famine years, and Qin becoming wealthy and strong,” and “great convenience.” [24]24 Yu: the legendary founder of the Xia dynasty, credited with controlling the Great Flood. The Three Dynasties: the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Zhengguo Canal: an irrigation canal built in the 3rd century BCE by the state of Qin, which later contributed to its unification of China. The Cao Canal: a canal built during the Han dynasty for grain transport. *Guanzi* held that under abnormal production conditions where “the people have lost their foundation,” the government should actively build roads, palaces, terraces, and pavilions. On the one hand, this would serve as a form of work-relief, helping the poor to survive difficult times; on the other hand, it would fulfill state functions by supplying the public goods necessary for society. *Guanzi* examined consumption as a link in the process of social reproduction, arguing that active consumption could enable “the fundamental occupation to be established” and play a positive role in promoting agricultural production. [25]25 *Guanzi*: a collection of political and economic writings attributed to Guan Zhong (c. 720–645 BCE), a reformer of the state of Qi, but compiled over later centuries. Lu Ji of the Ming dynasty believed that frugal consumption benefited individuals and families, keeping them free from poverty, while the active consumption of the government and the wealthy could provide a means of livelihood for the poor, thereby “equalizing the world and enriching it.” [26]26 Lu Ji (1515–1552): a Ming dynasty scholar who argued that conspicuous consumption by the wealthy could stimulate the economy and benefit the poor.

“量入为出”“用之有节”等节俭消费思想是中国传统消费思想的主基调，不过，还有不少学者注意到政府在民生领域“用之于民”的积极消费所产生的“固本”“利民”等正向社会影响。国防、教育、赈济、水利等民生领域的公共支出是中国传统社会财政支出的主要构成，历代学者皆对此非常重视。《荀子》将“修堤梁，通沟浍，行水潦，安水臧，以时决塞”等公共产品供给视为政府最重要的职责，司马迁在《史记·河渠书》中对禹疏九江、秦郑国渠、汉漕渠等水利工程的兴修及其“功施于三代”“关中为沃野，无凶年，秦以富强”“大便利”等惠及大众、促进经济发展的正面成效进行由衷地肯定。《管子》认为，在“民失本”的非正常生产环境，政府应主动修建道路、宫室台榭等，此举一方面可起到以工代赈的作用，帮助穷人挺过困难时期，另一方面亦是履行国家职能，供给出社会必需的公共产品。《管子》将消费置于社会再生产的一个环节进行考察，认为积极消费可使“本事得立”，对农业生产起到积极促进作用。明代陆楫认为节俭消费有利于个人和家庭，使其免于贫困，而政府和富人的积极消费可为穷人提供谋生途径，起到“均天下而富之”的作用。

Consumption is one of the main factors influencing economic development. In Marxist political economy, production is the starting point of the general process of social reproduction, while consumption is its endpoint. Consumption enables the purpose of production to be realized and, at the same time, creates new demands for production. The report of the 20th National Congress of the CPC emphasized the need to “strengthen the foundational role of consumption in economic development and the key role of investment in optimizing the supply structure.” [27]27 The 20th National Congress of the CPC: the party congress held in October 2022 that set the political line for the following five years. The consumption wisdom embodied in traditional thought on “spending on the people,” which reflects the active use of consumption by ancient Chinese to promote production and restore social vitality and order, can offer us useful inspiration.

消费是影响经济发展的主要因素之一。马克思主义政治经济学中，生产是社会再生产一般过程的起点，消费则是终点。消费使生产的目的得以实现，同时还会创造出新的生产需求。党的二十大报告强调，应“增强消费对经济发展的基础性作用和投资对优化供给结构的关键作用”。沉积在“用之于民”等传统消费思想中、体现中国古人主动利用消费促使生产、恢复社会活力与秩序的消费智慧可以给我们有益的启示。

Online editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗