The Dissemination of Marxism and Marxism-Leninism in China before the Founding of the Communist Party of China

The founding of the Communist League in June 1847 marked the rise of the international communist movement. The publication of the *Communist Manifesto* in February 1848 marked the founding of Marxism. On January 22, 1924, the day after Lenin’s death, the Central Committee of the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) issued the “Appeal to the Entire Party and All Working People,” formally proposing and using the concept of “Leninism.” On July 8 of the same year, the Fifth Congress of the Communist International (i.e., the Third International) adopted a resolution, first proposing and using the concept of “Marxism-Leninism,” which was translated into Chinese as “Marxism-Leninism” and “Marxism-Leninism.” [1]1 The May Fourth Movement (1919) was an anti-imperialist, anti-feudal cultural and political movement led by Chinese intellectuals and students, which is seen as a key turning point in the spread of Marxism in China. The process by which Marxism and Marxism-Leninism were cognized, accepted, and applied by the Chinese people was a historical process of continuous expansion and deepening. Before the October Revolution, Marxism received only fragmentary introduction and preliminary dissemination in China; after the October Revolution, it received more conscious and proactive introduction and systematic, widespread dissemination, providing full ideological and theoretical preparation for the birth of the Communist Party of China. Mao Zedong pointed out: “The salvos of the October Revolution brought us Marxism-Leninism.” “Take the road of the Russians — that is the conclusion.” [2]2 *New Youth* was a leading intellectual journal of the New Culture Movement, founded by Chen Duxiu in 1915, which became a major platform for promoting Marxism. From its inception in 1921, Marxism and Marxism-Leninism were engraved by the Communist Party of China on its own banner, and the mode of their introduction and the speed of their dissemination in China immediately underwent a landmark transformation. In June 2019, during a visit to Russia, General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that the cruiser *Aurora*, which fired the first shot of the October Revolution, holds extraordinary significance for the Chinese people, and that this historical connection with China carries very heavy weight in our hearts. The Russian October Revolution, the Russian Bolshevik Party, Marxism, and Marxism-Leninism are historically linked with the Chinese revolution, the Communist Party of China, adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times, and Marxism adapted to the Chinese context and the needs of the times, forming a magnificent landscape and a magnificent journey of “two-way advancement.” [3]3 The “Chen in the South and Li in the North” (南陈北李) refers to Chen Duxiu (based in Shanghai, south) and Li Dazhao (based in Beijing, north), the two key founders of the CPC. History and reality fully prove that Marxism and Marxism-Leninism have not let China down, and China has not let Marxism and Marxism-Leninism down. Reviewing the dissemination and development of Marxism and Marxism-Leninism in China before the founding of the Communist Party of China is, in the 21st century, a commemoration of the centenary of Lenin’s death and a commemoration of the centenary of the emergence and use of the concept of “Marxism-Leninism.”

1847年6月共产主义者同盟成立,标志着国际共产主义运动兴起。1848年2月《共产党宣言》发表,标志着马克思主义创立。1924年1月22日,即列宁逝世后的第二天,俄国共产党(布)中央发布《告全党和全体劳动人民书》,正式提出和使用“列宁主义”的概念。同年7月8日,共产国际(即第三国际)第五次代表大会通过决议,第一次提出和使用“马克思主义-列宁主义”的概念,被译为中文“马克思列宁主义”、“马列主义”的概念。马克思主义、马克思列宁主义被中国人民所认知、接受、运用,是一个不断拓展和深化的历史过程。十月革命之前,马克思主义在中国只是得到零星介绍和初步传播;十月革命之后,则得到更加自觉主动介绍和系统广泛传播,并为中国共产党的诞生提供了充分的思想、理论准备。毛泽东指出:“十月革命一声炮响,给我们送来了马克思列宁主义。”“走俄国人的路——这就是结论。”1921年诞生伊始,马克思主义、马克思列宁主义就被中国共产党镌刻在自己的旗帜上,它在中国的介绍方式、传播速度就随之发生了具有里程碑意义的转变。2019年6月,习近平总书记在访问俄罗斯时指出,曾打响十月革命第一炮的阿芙乐尔号巡洋舰对中国人民而言意义非凡,它和中国的这种渊源关系,在我们心中是很重很重的分量。俄国十月革命、俄国布尔什维克党、马克思主义、马克思列宁主义与中国革命、中国共产党、马克思主义中国化时代化、中国化时代化马克思主义历史性地联系在一起,形成了“双向奔赴”的壮阔景观和壮美旅程。历史和现实充分证明,马克思主义、马克思列宁主义没有辜负中国,中国没有辜负马克思主义、马克思列宁主义。梳理中国共产党成立之前马克思主义与马克思列宁主义在中国的传播和发展,是21世纪的今天对列宁逝世一百周年的纪念、对“马克思列宁主义”概念出现和使用一百周年的纪念。

I. Fragmentary Introduction and Preliminary Dissemination of Marxism in China before the October Revolution

一、十月革命前马克思主义在中国的零星介绍和初步传播

The Chinese nation and the Chinese people have made outstanding contributions to the progress of human civilization and the development of human society. However, from the Opium War of 1840 onward, the strong ships and powerful cannons of the capitalist powers interrupted the normal course of development of ancient Chinese society. The nation subjected to humiliation, the people subjected to suffering, and civilization subjected to dust are a true portrayal of the miserable situation into which China, the Chinese people, the Chinese nation, and Chinese civilization fell. Due to the real contrast between the advanced Western countries and the relatively backward Russia, from the 1840s to the early 20th century, many Chinese people of lofty ideals chose to seek remedies for national salvation from Western countries, yet very few advocated learning from Russia.

中华民族和中国人民为人类文明进步、人类社会发展作出了卓绝贡献。但是,从1840年鸦片战争起,资本主义列强的坚船利炮阻断了古老中国社会发展的正常进程。国家蒙辱、人民蒙难、文明蒙尘,是中国、中国人民和中华民族、中华文明陷入悲惨境地的真实写照。由于先进的西方国家与相对落后的俄国之间的现实反差,从19世纪40年代到20世纪初,中国很多仁人志士选择向西方国家寻求救亡图存的药方,却很少有人主张向俄国学习。

All epoch-making theories are products conceived by and meeting the needs of their times. Marx and Engels lived in 19th-century Europe. They answered the question “Where is capitalism heading, where is human society heading?” and founded the scientific theory of “seeking liberation for humanity,” i.e., Marxism, revealing the general laws of the development of human society and providing a great tool for understanding and transforming the world. At the same time, they highly affirmed the contributions of Chinese civilization to the progress of human civilization, paid close attention to the revolutionary cause of the Chinese people, and eagerly hoped for the independence of the Chinese nation and the liberation of the Chinese people. Marx and Engels wrote works such as *Revolution in China and in Europe*, *The Opium Trade*, and *The New War with China*. They once predicted: “Before many years have passed, we shall see the death struggle of the oldest empire in the world, and at the same time we shall see the dawn of a new century for all of Asia.” [4]4 Xibaipo was a village in Hebei Province that served as the CPC’s central command post during the final phase of the Chinese Civil War (1948-1949). General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that Marx and Engels “scientifically foresaw the emergence of ‘Chinese socialism’ and even gave a beautiful name to the new China in their minds — ‘the Chinese Republic.’”

一切划时代的理论,都是时代孕育并满足时代需要的产物。马克思、恩格斯生活于19世纪的欧洲。他们回答了“资本主义向何处去、人类社会向何处去”的问题,创立了“为人类求解放”的科学理论即马克思主义,揭示了人类社会发展的一般规律,提供了认识世界和改造世界的伟大工具。同时,他们高度肯定中华文明对人类文明进步的贡献,高度关注中国人民的革命事业,热切期望中华民族的独立和中国人民的解放。马克思、恩格斯撰写了《中国革命和欧洲革命》《鸦片贸易史》《新的对华战争》等著作。他们曾预言:“过不了多少年,我们就会看到世界上最古老的帝国作垂死的挣扎,同时我们也会看到整个亚洲新世纪的曙光。”习近平总书记指出,马克思、恩格斯“科学预见了‘中国社会主义’的出现,甚至为他们心中的新中国取了靓丽的名字——‘中华共和国’”。

Regarding the dissemination and influence of Marxism in China, Mao Zedong pointed out in his “Report on the Work Guidelines for the Seventh National Congress” in April 1945: “Marx and Engels founded the doctrine of Marxism in 1843 (three years after the Opium War), but from 1843 to 1917, for seventy-four years, its influence was mainly limited to Europe, and the vast majority of people in the world did not know of so-called Marxism.” In China during that period, it was the same. Apart from a very small number of overseas students, “no one truly knew about Marxist communism.” In June 1949, Mao Zedong pointed out again in *On the People’s Democratic Dictatorship*: “The Chinese found Marxism through the introduction of the Russians. Before the October Revolution, the Chinese not only did not know of Lenin and Stalin, they also did not know of Marx and Engels.” Mao Zedong made this judgment from the dimension of the Chinese people’s scientific understanding, genuine dissemination, and practical application of Marxism; we cannot understand it in an absolute sense. Tracing back to the source, in fact, before the Russian October Revolution, a very small number of progressive Chinese intellectuals did have some fragmentary contact, fragmentary introduction, and preliminary dissemination of Marxism, but it lacked comprehensiveness, systematicity, and pertinence.

关于马克思主义在中国的传播和影响,毛泽东在1945年4月所作的《关于“七大”工作方针的报告》中指出:“马克思、恩格斯创立马克思主义学说始于一八四三年(鸦片战争后三年),但由一八四三年到一九一七年,七十四年之久,影响主要限于欧洲,全世界大多数人还不知道有所谓马克思主义。”在那一时期的中国,也是如此。除了极少数留学生,“并没有人真正知道马克思主义的共产主义。”1949年6月,毛泽东在《论人民民主专政》中又指出:“中国人找到马克思主义,是经过俄国人介绍的。在十月革命以前,中国人不但不知道列宁、斯大林,也不知道马克思、恩格斯。”毛泽东是从中国人对马克思主义的科学理解、真正传播、实际运用的维度作出这一论断的,我们不能从绝对的意义上进行理解。循迹溯源,事实上,在俄国十月革命之前,中国极少数进步知识分子对马克思主义还是有一些片段接触、零星介绍、初步传播的,但是缺乏全面性、系统性、针对性。

Specifically, from the 1870s to the early 20th century, the Chinese began to come into contact with and understand Marxism and socialism mainly through two channels: Europe and Japan.

具体地说,从19世纪70年代到20世纪初,中国人开始接触并了解马克思主义和社会主义,主要是通过欧洲和日本这两条途径。

Regarding the European channel, it lifted the curtain on the fragmentary introduction of Marxism in China and laid a preliminary foundation for the dissemination of Marxism in China. The earliest translators and disseminators of Marxist and socialist doctrines were mainly Chinese envoys to Europe, Chinese scholars studying in Europe, and European missionaries in China. The world workers’ movement and socialist movement that the Chinese first learned about was the Paris Commune Revolution that broke out in 1871. Zhang Deyi, in his *Record of Accompanying the Envoy to France*, and Wang Tao and Zhang Zongliang, in their *Record of the Franco-Prussian War*, both described the Paris Commune Revolution in detail. In the nearly ten years from 1873 to early 1882, the *Compilation of Recent Events in Western Countries*, compiled by the Jiangnan Arsenal, frequently published news of strikes by European and American workers. It also reported events such as the passage of the *Law against the Social Democratic Party’s Attempts to Endanger Public Order* by the Bismarck government in Germany in October 1878. In 1878, the *Compilation of Recent Events in Western Countries* also used the term “Kangminiren.” “Kangminiren” is the transliteration of the Western word “communist.” The Chinese envoy to Germany, Li Fengbao, also recorded the European socialist movement in his diaries of 1878 and 1879. Newspapers such as *The Chinese Progress*, *The North China Daily News*, and *The Translation Book Society Gazette* published news reports such as “The Socialist International Congress” and “On the Stoppage of Work by British Machine Builders.” From February 1891 to April 1892, the *Review of the Times*, published by the Shanghai Christian Literature Society, serialized *Looking Backward* by the American utopian socialist Edward Bellamy. From February to May 1899, the first three chapters of *Social Evolution*, written by the British missionary and philosopher Benjamin Kidd, were published under the title *The Great Harmony*. [5]5 Karl Kautsky (1854-1938) was a German-Austrian Marxist theorist; Thomas Kirkup (1844-1912) was a British historian of socialism. Soon after, a Chinese single-volume edition of *Social Evolution*, abridged by the British missionary Timothy Richard and written by Cai Erkang, was published. This book pointed out: “Examining recent schools of thought, there is a school that studies the new science of pacifying the people, such as the German Markesi, who specializes in capital.” “There are famous scholars in Germany who study the science of nourishing the people; one is Markesi, and the other is Engesi.” Markesi and Engesi are Marx and Engels. “Specializes in capital” refers to Marx’s study of capital. “The new science of pacifying the people” and “the science of nourishing the people” refer to the socialist doctrines newly emerging in Europe. The book also referred to Marx as “the famous leader of the workers.”

关于欧洲一途,拉开了马克思主义在中国零星介绍的序幕,为马克思主义在中国的传播奠定了初步的基础。最早翻译和传播马克思主义、社会主义学说的,主要是中国出使欧洲的使者、留学欧洲的学人以及欧洲来华的传教士。中国人起初了解的世界工人运动和社会主义运动,是1871年爆发的巴黎公社革命。张德彝在《随使法国记》中,王韬、张宗良在《普法战记》中,都详细地描述了巴黎公社革命。在1873年—1882年初近十年间,江南制造局编译的《西国近事汇编》经常刊登欧美工人罢工的消息。它还报道了1878年10月德国俾斯麦政府通过《反对社会民主党企图进行危害治安的法令》等事件。1878年,《西国近事汇编》还使用了“康密尼人”一词。“康密尼人”,即西文“共产主义者”的音译。中国驻德使臣李凤苞在1878年和1879年的日记中也曾对欧洲社会主义运动有所记录。《时务报》《北中国每日报》《译书工会报》等发表了《社会党开万国大会》《论英国机器制造各工匠停工事》等新闻报道。1891年2月—1892年4月,上海广学会主办的《万国公报》连载了美国空想社会主义者贝拉米的《回头看纪略》。1899年2月—5月,英国传教士、哲学家本杰明·颉德撰写的《社会的进化》前三章以《大同学》为题发表。不久,英国传教士李提太摩节译、蔡尔康撰述的《社会的进化》中文单行本出版。该书指出,“试稽近世学派,有讲求安民新学之一家,如德国马克偲,主于资本者也。”“德国讲求养民学者,有名人焉,一曰马克偲,一曰恩格思。”马克偲、恩格思,即马克思、恩格斯。“主于资本者”,即马克思对于资本的研究。“安民新学”、“养民学”,即在欧洲新出现的社会主义学说。该书还把马克思称之为“百工领袖著名者”。

At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the dissemination of Marxism also took the route of Japan. After the failure of the Hundred Days' Reform [6]6 The Communist International (Comintern, 1919-1943) was an international organization uniting communist parties worldwide, founded by Lenin and the Russian Bolsheviks., many Chinese people of insight traveled east to Japan to seek a way to save the nation. Chinese students in Japan and the publishing circles, including both reformists and revolutionaries, began to translate and introduce Marxist and socialist theories from Japanese works.

19世纪末20世纪初,马克思主义的传播又出现了日本一途。戊戌变法失败后,中国许多有识之士东渡日本,探寻救国之道。中国留日学生和出版界,既包括改良派人士、也包括革命派人士,开始从日文著作中译介马克思主义、社会主义学说。

In July 1900, the journal *The China Discussion* [7]7 The Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) was the name of the ruling party of Soviet Russia from 1918 to 1925, led by Lenin., run by Liang Qichao, used the concept of "socialism." In January 1901, the third chapter of the book *Modern Political History* by Japanese scholar Hozumi Yatsuka [8]8 The Communist International (Comintern) was an international communist organization founded by Lenin in 1919 to coordinate the world communist movement. touched on the German Social Democratic Party and the International Workingmen's Association (i.e., the First International), mentioning "Maikesi" (i.e., Marx) and "Lasilai" (i.e., Lassalle), also mentioning Marx's "advocacy of equal distribution of wealth," and calling Marx the "chairman of the general council

1900年7月,梁启超主办的《清议报》使用“社会主义”这一概念。1901年1月,日本学者贺长雄撰写的《近世政治史》一书第三章涉及德国社会民主党和万国工人总会(即第一国际),提到麦克司(即马克思)和拉司米(即拉萨尔),还提到马克思的“倡均富之说”,并称马克思是万国工人总会“参事会长,总理全体”。1902年,梁启超在《进化论革命者颉德之学说》中指出:“麦喀士,日耳曼人,社会主义之泰斗也。”麦喀士,即马克思。1903年2月,马君武在《社会主义与进化论比较——附社会党巨子所著书记》中指出:“社会主义,发源于法兰西人圣西门、佛礼儿,中兴于法兰西人鲁意伯龙、布鲁东,极盛于德意志人拉萨勒、马克司。”“马克司者,以唯物论解历史学之人也,马氏尝谓阶级竞争为历史之钥。”佛礼儿,即傅立叶;鲁意伯龙,即路易·勃朗;布鲁东,即蒲鲁东;拉萨勒,即拉萨尔;马克司,即马克思。该文最后附列了著名社会主义者撰写的26部著作,其中包括马克思、恩格斯撰写的5部著作。1903年2月—4月间,《新世界学报》发表久松义典撰写、杜士珍翻译的《近世社会主义评论》,指出,“近代社会主义,自赛西门贫笃西孟阐明之,而显彰于考鲁玛克斯”。赛西门贫笃西孟,即圣西门;考鲁玛克斯,即卡尔·马克思。1903年3月,福井准造在《近世社会主义》一书中指出,“野契陆斯与马陆科斯相亲善,始终同其难者”,“为社会主义定立确固不拔之学说”。马陆科斯、野契陆斯,即马克思、恩格斯。作者把马克思称之为“一代之伟人”,把恩格斯称之为马克思的“有力之同志”,认为《共产党宣言》是“一大雄篇”、《资本论》是“一代之大著述”。该书还摘引了《共产党宣言》的最后一段话。1903年10月,大我在《新社会之理论》中指出,共产主义“创于法国人罢勃,其后劲则犹太人埋蛤司,今之万国劳动党其见象也”;马克思主义已经成为第二国际各国社会党的旗帜。罢勃,即巴贝夫;埋蛤司,即马克思。该文扼要勾勒了共产主义学说发展的基本脉络。作者虽然并不完全理解马克思主义唯物史观、剩余价值论等的真正意义,却最早尝试用阶级剥削和压迫的原理对中国革命实际进行说明。1906年12月,日本东京社会主义研究社编译、出版幸德秋水撰写的《社会主义神髓》,书末刊有“社会主义丛书出版预告”,其中包括《共产党宣言》,并标明“德国马尔克、嫣及尔合著,中国蜀魂译”。马尔克,即马克思;嫣及尔,即恩格斯。

Between 1902 and 1903, Sun Yat-sen was deeply attracted to socialism, to the point that he “could not forget it even for a moment.” In May 1905, Sun Yat-sen visited Brussels, Belgium, with the aim “of requesting the Executive Bureau of the International Socialist Party to accept his party as a member.” The “International Socialist Party” refers to the Second International. [6]6 The Communist International (Comintern, 1919-1943) was an international organization uniting communist parties worldwide, founded by Lenin and the Russian Bolsheviks. In talks with the Bureau’s chairman, Émile Vandervelde, and secretary, Camille Huysmans, Sun Yat-sen even proposed that China at that time “could directly transition from the medieval guild system to a socialist production organization, without having to undergo the hardships brought by the capitalist system,” and declared that within a few years the Chinese people “would live under a complete system of collectivism.”

在1902年—1903年间,孙中山被社会主义深深吸引,以至“极思不能须臾忘”。1905年5月,孙中山访问比利时布鲁塞尔,其目的“是为了向国际社会党执行局请求接纳他的党为成员”。“国际社会党”,即第二国际。在与执行局主席王德威尔得、书记胡斯曼的会谈中,孙中山甚至提出,当时的中国“可以直接从中世纪的行会制度过渡到社会主义的生产组织,而不必经历资本主义制度带来的艰难困苦”,并宣称中国人几年之内就“将生活在完全的集产主义制度下”。

In August 1905, Sun Yat-sen established the Tongmenghui (Chinese Revolutionary Alliance) in Japan. In October, *Minbao* (The People’s Journal) was founded as the organ of the Tongmenghui. Bourgeois revolutionaries such as Zhu Zhixin, Song Jiaoren, Ye Xiasheng, and Liao Zhongkai wrote articles in *Minbao* introducing the *Communist Manifesto* and the communist movement. In November, Zheshen (i.e., Zhu Zhixin) pointed out in “Biographies of German Revolutionaries”: “Marx, named Karl, is Marx. Born in Trier.” “Initially, Marx was close friends with Friedrich Engels in Paris.” “After Marx left France, Engels also followed him northward. Together they disseminated their doctrines in the daily newspapers of Brussels, and those who advocated communism revered them. The Communist League then asked them to draft a manifesto, published to the world, which is the *Communist Manifesto*.” Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels are Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Trier and Brussels are Trier and Brussels. The Communist League and the *Communist Manifesto* are the Communist League and the *Communist Manifesto*. This article focused on introducing the basic content of the *Communist Manifesto* and fully translated the text of the “ten measures” proposed in the *Communist Manifesto*. The article also summarized the main viewpoints of *Capital*. In the article, Zhu Zhixin introduced the basic categories and main content of Marxism, such as capital accumulation, surplus value, nationalization of the means of production, impoverishment of the proletariat, class struggle, violent revolution, and the realization of communism.

1905年8月,孙中山在日本建立了中国同盟会。10月,《民报》作为中国同盟会的机关报创刊。朱执信、宋教仁、叶夏声、廖仲恺等资产阶级革命派人士在《民报》撰文,介绍《共产党宣言》和共产主义运动。11月,蛰伸(即朱执信)在《德意志革命家小传》中指出:“马尔克者,名卡尔Karl氏马尔克。生于德利尔Trier。”“初马尔克在巴黎与非力特力嫣及尔FriedrichsEngels相友善。”“马尔克既去法,嫣及尔亦从之北游。因相与播其学说于比律悉之日报间,言共产主义者群宗之,万国共产同盟会遂推使草檄,布诸世,是为共产主义宣言。”卡尔Karl氏马尔克、非力特力嫣及尔FriedrichsEngels,即卡尔·马克思、弗里德里希·恩格斯。德利尔Trier、比律悉,即特利尔、布鲁塞尔。万国共产同盟会、共产主义宣言,即共产主义者同盟、《共产党宣言》。该文着重介绍了《共产党宣言》的基本内容,并完整翻译了《共产党宣言》提出的“十项措施”的条文。该文还概述了《资本论》的主要观点。朱执信在文中介绍了马克思主义的基本范畴、主要内容,诸如资本积累、剩余价值、生产资料国有化、无产阶级贫困化、阶级斗争、暴力革命、实现共产主义等。

In May 1906, “Types and Commentary on the European Social Revolutionary Movement” pointed out that socialism “was a doctrine created by the two German scholars Karl Marx and Engels. It has recently become popular throughout Europe.” Karl Marx and Engels are Karl Marx and Engels. In June, Zhu Zhixin pointed out in “On the Need for Social Revolution to Proceed in Parallel with Political Revolution” that “since Marx, doctrines have all changed, gradually moving toward implementation, and are called scientific socialism in the world.” Marx is Marx. Zhai Zhai (i.e., Song Jiaoren) in “A Brief History of the Congresses of the International Socialist Party” began with the founding of the First International and its successive congresses, focusing on introducing the first six congresses of the Second International, as well as the struggle between Marxism and opportunism (i.e., what the author calls the soft and hard factions within the social party). Song Jiaoren also excerpted and translated the final passage of the *Communist Manifesto*.

1906年5月,《欧美社会革命运动之种类及评论》指出,社会主义“学说创自德儒卡玛KarlMarx殷杰Engels二氏。近乃风靡全欧。”卡玛KarlMarx、殷杰Engels,即卡尔·马克思、恩格斯。6月,朱执信在《论社会革命当与政治革命并行》中指出,“自马尔克以来,学说皆变,渐趋实行,世称科学的社会主义”。马尔克,即马克思。犟斋(即宋教仁)在《万国社会党大会略史》中从第一国际的成立及历次代表大会写起,着重介绍了第二国际前六次代表大会,以及马克思主义与机会主义(即作者所谓的社会党内软、硬两派)之间斗争的情况。宋教仁还摘译了《共产党宣言》的最后一段话。

From 1907 onward, anarchists also introduced and translated partial contents of the works of Marx and Engels. In August, Zhang Ji, Liu Shipei, He Zhen, and others among Chinese students in Japan initiated the Society for the Study of Socialism and published the journal *Natural Justice* as the organ of this anarchist group. In September, the article “A Study of the Similarities and Differences between European Socialism and Anarchism” mentioned that “the book written by Marx is *The Development of Socialism from Utopian to Scientific*.” “Marx” here refers to Karl Marx. In fact, the author of *The Development of Socialism from Utopian to Scientific*, i.e., *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*, was Engels. In December, the combined issue of *Natural Justice*, volumes 13–14, carried an article by He Zhen (under the pen name He Yinzhen, wife of Liu Shipei) titled “Economic Revolution and Women’s Revolution.” The appendix to this article was the author’s excerpted translation of the discussion on the family and marriage system from Chapter 2 of *The Communist Manifesto*. In January 1908, Min Ming’s translation of the “Preface to *The Communist Manifesto*” was published in volume 15 of *Natural Justice*; this was the preface Engels wrote for the English edition of *The Communist Manifesto* in 1888. In March, the combined issue of *Natural Justice*, volumes 16–19, published a Chinese translation of Chapter 1 of *The Communist Manifesto*, “Bourgeois and Proletarians,” with the translator rendering “Bourgeois and Proletarians” as “Gentlemen and Commoners.” At the same time, it also published a preface written by Shen Shu (i.e., Liu Shipei). This was the first time a Chinese person wrote a preface for a translation of *The Communist Manifesto*. In the preface, Liu Shipei introduced the history of the Communist League and the circumstances of the publication of *The Communist Manifesto*. In the same issue of *Natural Justice*, the article “Research on the Women’s Question” included a translation of Engels’s *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State*, rendered as *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State*, and excerpted parts of Chapter 2, “The Family.”

从1907年起,无政府主义者也介绍和翻译过马克思、恩格斯著作的部分内容。8月,张继、刘师培、何震等在留日学生中发起成立社会主义讲习会,出版《天义》报作为这一无政府主义团体的机关报。9月,《欧洲社会主义与无政府主义异同考》一文提到“马尔克斯所著书有《由空想的科学的社会主义之发达》”。马尔克斯,即马克思。实际上,《由空想的科学的社会主义之发达》即《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》的作者是恩格斯。12月,《天义》报第13-14卷合刊号刊载何震(笔名何殷震,刘师培妻子)撰写的《经济革命与女子革命》。该文附录则是作者摘译的《共产党宣言》第二章中关于家庭和婚姻制度的论述。1908年1月,民鸣翻译的《共产党宣言序言》在《天义》报第15卷发表,这是1888年恩格斯为《共产党宣言》英文版所撰写的序言。3月,《天义》报第16-19卷合刊号发表《共产党宣言》第一章《资产者和无产者》的中文译文,译者把《资产者和无产者》译为《绅士与平民》。同时,它还发表了申叔(即刘师培)撰写的序言。这是中国人第一次为《共产党宣言》的译文撰写序言。在序言中,刘师培介绍了共产主义者同盟的历史和《共产党宣言》发表的经过。在这同一期《天义》报上发表的《女子问题研究》一文中,译者把恩格斯的《家庭、私有制和国家的起源》译为《家庭、私有财产及国家之起源》,并摘译了该书第二章《家庭》的部分内容。

After the 1911 Revolution, domestic publications in China also began to translate and introduce the works and theories of Marx and Engels. In articles, speeches, and conversations, Sun Yat-sen expressed his “wholehearted support” for socialism and called for “vigorous advocacy” so that “its theory may become universally known in the minds of the people of the entire nation.” Sun Yat-sen strongly promoted the views of Henry George and Marx, stating that the former advocated land common ownership and the latter capital common ownership, and “although they differ, both seek the happiness of the majority of society.” “Socialists all advocate the theories of these two men,” and especially “Marx’s capital common ownership, whose theory captures the true essence of socialism.”

1911年辛亥革命之后,中国国内出版物也开始译介马克思、恩格斯的著作及其学说。在文章、演讲和谈话中,孙中山表示“竭力赞成”社会主义,并号召“广为鼓吹”,从而“使其理论普及全国人民心目中去”。孙中山极力宣扬卓尔基亨利(即乔治·亨利)和麦克司(即马克思),二者的主张:一为土地共有,一为资本公有,“虽各不相同,而其为社会大多数谋幸福者一也”。“社会主义家莫不主张亨、麦二氏之学说”,尤其是“马氏之资本公有,其学说得社会主义之真髓”。

In June 1912, issue No. 2 of the journal *New World*, the organ of the Shaoxing branch of the Chinese Socialist Party, published an article translated and narrated by Zhe Shen and edited by Zhu Chen, titled “The Great Socialist Marx’s Theory.” The article argued that “Marx’s precise thought” was the fundamental reason why “the theory of socialism swells and accumulates, the power of socialist parties surges and spreads, enabling the majority of humanity worldwide to take shelter under this banner, and causing the wealthy and powerful families since the beginning of history to stand on tiptoe and look askance.” The article introduced Marx’s life, an outline of *The Communist Manifesto*, and the main content of *Capital*, praising *The Communist Manifesto* as “nothing less than the guiding line of the 20th-century social revolution and the driving force of the new world of great harmony and peace.” The article also pointed out that, besides *The Communist Manifesto*, “the theoretical discussions treasured by the world are the history of capital and *Capital*.” “Marx” here refers to Karl Marx. At the same time, issues No. 1, 3, 5, 6, and 8 of *New World* carried a translation by Shi Rong, a member of the Chinese Socialist Party, who rendered Friedrich Engels and *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific* as the author and title, translating sections one and two and parts of section three of Engels’s *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*.

1912年6月,中国社会党绍兴支部机关刊物《新世界》第2期刊载蛰伸译述、煮尘整理的《社会主义大家马儿克之学说》。该文认为,“马儿克精密之思想”是“社会主义之学说磅礴郁积、社会党之势力澎湃弥漫,能使全世界大多数人类栖息于是旗帜之下,又使自有历史以来富家豪族重足而立、侧目而视的根本原因”。该文介绍了马克思的生平和《共产党宣言》的概要以及《资本论》的主要内容,称誉《共产党宣言》“不啻20世纪社会革命之引导线,大同太平新世界之原动力”。该文还指出,除了《共产党宣言》以外,“其学理之论议为世界所宝贵者,则资本史与《资本论》是也”。马儿克,即马克思。同时,《新世界》第1、3、5、6、8期刊载了中国社会党党员施荣泽以弗勒特立克恩极尔斯、《理想社会主义和实行社会主义》为作者名、书名,翻译了恩格斯《社会主义从空想到科学的发展》一书第一节、第二节以及第三节的部分内容。

Through the Japanese route, Chinese people initially came into contact with and accepted the basic knowledge of Marxist theory, and at the same time, some basic concepts of Marxist theory were also integrated into the theoretical achievements of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times. However, during this period, due to the limitations of the level and depth of Japanese research on and introduction of Marxism, and also because the translators and introducers were mostly Chinese students in Japan and democratic revolutionaries exiled in Japan, whose knowledge reserves and ideological preparation were clearly insufficient, people’s understanding of Marxism was neither profound nor accurate. This caused the scope of Marxism’s influence in China to be greatly limited and not widely noticed. Therefore, this can only be considered a transition from the previous sporadic introduction of Marxism to the stage of preliminary dissemination. During this period, although some people were interested in parts of Marxist theory, there were in fact no genuine Marxists.

藉由日本一途,中国人初步接触并接受了马克思主义理论的基础知识,同时,马克思主义理论的一些基本概念也融进了后来马克思主义中国化时代化的理论成果之中。但是,这一时期,由于受到日本人对马克思主义研究、介绍的程度、水平的局限,也由于译介者多为中国的留日学生和流亡日本的民主主义革命者,其知识储备和思想准备明显不足,致使人们对马克思主义的理解不深刻甚至不准确,致使马克思主义在中国的影响范围受到很大局限而未被普遍关注,因此这只能算是从此前对马克思主义的零星介绍进入到了初步传播阶段。这一时期,虽然有一些人对马克思主义学说的部分内容感兴趣,但实际上并没有出现真正意义上的马克思主义者。

II. The Widespread Dissemination of Marxism-Leninism in China after the October Revolution

二、十月革命后马克思列宁主义在中国的广泛传播

The victory of the October Revolution, especially the establishment of the Communist International, rapidly aroused the ardent longing for Soviet Russia and a new, intense interest in Marxism among China’s advanced elements, particularly the pioneers of the Chinese workers’ movement. As a result, Soviet Russia became the most important channel for the introduction of Marxism into China. This channel was the latest and also the most powerful route in the process of Marxism’s dissemination in China, and it gradually transformed the three parallel routes of Marxism’s dissemination in China into a single, dominant route. To be precise, what was widely disseminated in China after the October Revolution was the new theoretical form resulting from the integration of Marxism with the concrete realities of Russia—Marxism-Leninism. Mao Zedong pointed out: “Thanks to Marx, Engels, Lenin, and Stalin, they gave us a weapon. This weapon is not a machine gun, but Marxism-Leninism.”

十月革命的胜利,特别是共产国际的建立,迅速激发了中国的先进分子特别是中国工人运动的先驱者们对苏维埃俄国的热烈向往和对马克思主义的新的浓厚兴趣。由此,苏维埃俄国成为马克思主义传入中国的最重要途径。这一途径,是马克思主义在中国传播进程中最晚出现、也是最为有力的一条途径,并使马克思主义在中国传播中的三途并行渐次转为一途独进。确切地说,十月革命后在中国得到广泛传播的,是马克思主义与俄国具体实际相结合的新的理论形态——马克思列宁主义。毛泽东指出:“谢谢马克思、恩格斯、列宁和斯大林,他们给了我们以武器。这武器不是机关枪,而是马克思列宁主义。”

On the Soviet Russian route, Li Dazhao was the pioneer in China who genuinely propagated and accepted Marxism. Li Dazhao pointed out: “The Russian Revolution of 1917 is the herald of the world revolution in the 20th century.” After the October Revolution, Li Dazhao gradually transformed from a democrat into a communist, consciously and systematically accepting, studying, and disseminating Marxism, and promoting the shift from a pen-and-ink movement of propaganda about Marxism to a practical movement guided by Marxism for the working class.

在苏俄一途,李大钊是中国从真正意义上宣传和接受马克思主义的拓荒者。李大钊指出:“一九一七年的俄国革命,是二十世纪中世界革命的先声。”十月革命之后,李大钊从民主主义者逐步转变为共产主义者,自觉而系统地接受、研究、传播马克思主义,并推动把宣传马克思主义的笔墨运动转变为用马克思主义指导工人阶级的实际运动。

In the winter of 1917, Li Dazhao turned the Peking University Library into an important venue for progressive youth to study and research Marxism. From 1918 to early 1919, in articles such as “A Comparative View of the French and Russian Revolutions” and “The Victory of Bolshevism,” Li Dazhao analyzed the differences between the Russian October Revolution and the French Revolution, pointing out the great historical significance of the October Revolution. He stated: “Bolshevism is the doctrine held by the Russian Bolsheviks… Their doctrine is revolutionary socialism; their party is the revolutionary socialist party; they regard the German socialist economist Marx as their master.” “Marx” here refers to Karl Marx. These articles marked the beginning of China’s advanced intellectuals using newspapers and periodicals as a front for disseminating Marxism and beginning to learn to use the proletarian worldview to observe the fate of the nation.

1917年冬,李大钊把北京大学图书馆变成进步青年学习、研究马克思主义的重要场所。1918年—1919年初,在《法俄革命之比较观》《布尔什维主义的胜利》等文章中,李大钊剖析了俄国十月革命和法国大革命之间的区别,指明了十月革命的伟大历史意义。他指出:“布尔什维主义就是俄国布尔什维克所抱的主义……他们的主义,就是革命的社会主义;他们的党,就是革命的社会党;他们是奉德国社会主义经济学家马客士(Marx)为宗主的。”马客士,即马克思。这些文章,标志着我国先进知识分子开始运用报刊作为传播马克思主义的阵地,并开始学会运用无产阶级的世界观来观察国家命运。

Before the May Fourth Movement, among the pioneers who truly propagated Marxist theory were also Li Da, Chen Duxiu, and others. The May Fourth Movement, to a certain extent, marked the abandonment of illusions about the Western path by China’s advanced intellectuals. After the May Fourth Movement, in September 1919, Li Dazhao’s “My Marxist Views” was published in *New Youth*, Volume 6, Issues 5 and 6, stating: “Since the Russian Revolution, ‘Marxism’ has nearly swept the world; the social revolutions in Germany, Austria, Hungary, and other countries have arisen one after another, all taking ‘Marxism’ as their orthodoxy.” Based on the basic content of the *Communist Manifesto* and *Capital*, Li Dazhao believed that Marxist doctrine “completely forms an organic and systematic structure,” pointing out: “Marx’s socialist theory can be broadly divided into three parts: one is the theory of the past, that is, his theory of history, also called the theory of social organization evolution; the second is the theory of the present, that is, his economic theory, also called the economic theory of capitalism; the third is the theory of the future, that is, his policy theory, also called the theory of the socialist movement.” “These three parts of theory have an inseparable relationship, and the theory of class struggle is like a golden thread that fundamentally links these three major principles together.” Articles by Li Dazhao and others guided the Chinese people to turn their gaze toward this revolutionary doctrine for understanding and transforming the world, which heralded the further dissemination of Marxism in China.

“五四运动”之前,在真正意义上宣传马克思主义理论的先驱者们中,还有李达、陈独秀等人。“五四运动”,在一定程度上标志着中国的先进知识分子抛弃了对西方道路的幻想。“五四运动”之后,1919年9月,李大钊的《我的马克思主义观》在《新青年》第6卷第5号、第6号上发表,指出:“自俄国革命以来,‘马克思主义’几有风靡世界的势子,德、奥、匈诸国的社会革命相继而起,也都是奉‘马克思主义’为正宗。”根据《共产党宣言》、《资本论》的基本内容,李大钊认为马克思主义的学说是“完全自成一个有机的有系统的组织”,指出:“马氏社会主义的理论,可大别为三部:一为关于过去的理论,就是他的历史论,也称社会组织进化论;二为关于现在的理论,就是他的经济论,也称资本主义的经济论;三为关于将来的理论,就是他的政策论,也称社会主义运动论。”“这三部理论,都有不可分的关系,而阶级竞争说恰如一条金线,把这三大原理从根本上联络起来。”李大钊等人的文章,引导中国人把目光投向这一认识世界、改造世界的革命学说,这预示着马克思主义即将在中国得到进一步传播。

From 1920 onward, Li Dazhao began offering and teaching courses on Marxist theory to students in some departments at Peking University. The Marxist Theory Research Society initiated and established by Li Dazhao conducted relatively in-depth research on the basic principles of Marxism, issues of the international communist movement, and other topics, such as historical materialism, class struggle, surplus value, the dictatorship of the proletariat, and Marx’s three periods for the completion of communism, the history of socialism, comparisons and critiques of various recent socialisms, economic history and the history of economics, the Russian Revolution and construction, studies of the Bolshevik Party and the Third International (i.e., the Communist International) and its member parties, and the situation of world capitalist countries plundering various weak and small nations worldwide, especially China. In September 1920, on the basis of the Marxist Theory Research Society, Li Dazhao initiated and established the Beijing Communist Group.

从1920年起,李大钊开始为北京大学部分系科的学生开设、讲授马克思主义理论课程。李大钊发起成立的马克思学说研究会,对马克思主义基本原理、国际共产主义运动等问题进行了比较深入的研究,诸如唯物史观、阶级斗争、剩余价值、无产阶级专政及马克思预定共产主义完成的三个时期、社会主义史、晚近各种社会主义比较及其批评、经济史及经济学史、俄国革命及建设、布尔什维克党与第三国际(即共产国际)各共产党之研究、世界资本主义国家在世界各弱小民族特别是中国实施掠夺之状况等。1920年9月,在马克思学说研究会的基础上,李大钊发起成立了北京共产主义小组。

In September 1919, Chen Duxiu began to transform from a revolutionary democrat into a Marxist. In the summer of 1920, Chen Duxiu established the Marxist Research Society in Shanghai, which was in fact the Shanghai Communist Group. In August, the first complete Chinese translation of the *Communist Manifesto*, translated by Chen Wangdao, was officially published, credited as “Co-authored by Marx and Engels, translated by Chen Wangdao.” “Ma Ge Si” and “An Ge Er Si” refer to Marx and Engels. However, the book’s title was mistakenly printed as *The Communist Manifesto* (with a typographical error). This is the earliest complete Chinese translation of the *Communist Manifesto* that can be found to date, and also the first separate edition of a work by Marx and Engels published in China. When it was reprinted in September of that year, the book’s title was corrected to *The Communist Manifesto*.

1919年9月,陈独秀开始从革命民主主义者转变为马克思主义者。1920年夏,陈独秀在上海成立了马克思主义研究会,实际上就是上海共产主义小组。8月,陈望道翻译的《共产党宣言》全译本正式出版,署名为“马格斯、安格尔斯合著,陈望道译”。马格斯、安格尔斯,即马克思、恩格斯。但是,该书书名错印成了《共党产宣言》。这是迄今为止所能找到的《共产党宣言》在中国出版的第一个全译本,也是马克思、恩格斯著作在中国出版的第一个单行本。当年9月再版时,该书书名更正为《共产党宣言》。

The transformation of Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu from revolutionary democrats into communists and Marxists had epoch-making significance in the history of the Chinese revolution. At that time, “Chen in the South and Li in the North” became the two great banners of scientific socialism in China and symbols of the revolution. Under their influence, a large number of revolutionary democrats successively completed their transformation into communists and Marxists.

李大钊和陈独秀由革命民主主义者向共产主义者、马克思主义者的转变,在中国革命史上具有划时代的意义。其时,“南陈北李”成了科学社会主义在中国的两面大旗成了、革命的象征。在他们的影响下,一大批革命民主主义者相继完成了向共产主义者、马克思主义者的转变。

In October 1918, Li Dazhao arranged for Mao Zedong to work as an assistant librarian at Peking University. In November, Mao Zedong listened to Li Dazhao’s speech “The Victory of the Common People” on Tiananmen Square, gaining a more concrete understanding and knowledge of the October Revolution and Marxism. In 1949, when Mao Zedong spoke of Li Dazhao in Xibaipo, he said: “With his help, I only became a Marxist-Leninist.” In May-June 1920, Mao Zedong met Chen Duxiu in Shanghai. Mao Zedong said that Chen Duxiu “influenced me perhaps more than anyone else.” “The words Chen Duxiu spoke about his own beliefs left a deep impression on me during what was probably a critical period in my life.” Mao Zedong also mentioned that at this time, “three books especially deeply engraved themselves in my mind, building up my faith in Marxism. Once I accepted that Marxism is the correct interpretation of history, my faith in Marxism has never wavered. These three books are: the *Communist Manifesto*, translated by Chen Wangdao, which is the first Marxist book published in Chinese; *Class Struggle*, by Kautsky; and *The History of Socialism*, by Kirkup. By the summer of 1920, in theory and to some extent in action, I had already become a Marxist, and from then on I considered myself a Marxist.” “In the winter of 1920, for the first time I organized workers politically, and in this work I began to be guided by the influence of Marxist theory and the history of the Russian Revolution.” From the summer of 1920 to early 1921, after Mao Zedong transformed into a Marxist, he began actively propagating, researching, and practicing Marxism. He initiated the establishment of the Cultural Book Society, which sold large quantities of Marxist-Leninist works and revolutionary progressive publications; he participated in founding the Hunan “Marxist Research Society,” studying and researching Marxist-Leninist works such as the *Communist Manifesto* and *The State and Revolution*, and studying the Russian Revolution and the situation of the Third International.

1918年10月,李大钊安排毛泽东担任北京大学图书馆助理员。11月,毛泽东在天安门广场聆听了李大钊《庶民的胜利》的演讲,对十月革命和马克思主义有了更加具体的认识和了解。1949年,毛泽东在西柏坡谈到李大钊时曾说过:“在他的帮助下,我才成为一个马列主义者。” 1920年5、6月间,毛泽东在上海见到了陈独秀。毛泽东说,陈独秀“对我的影响也许超过其他任何人。”“陈独秀谈他自己的信仰的那些话,在我一生中可能是关键性的这个时期,对我产生了深刻的印象。”毛泽东还曾谈到,这时,“有三本书特别深地铭刻在我的心中,建立起我对马克思主义的信仰。我一旦接受了马克思主义是对历史的正确解释以后,我对马克思主义的信仰就没有动摇过。这三本书是:《共产党宣言》,陈望道译,这是用中文出版的第一本马克思主义的书;《阶级斗争》,考茨基著;《社会主义史》,柯卡普著。到了一九二○年夏天,在理论上,而且在某种程度的行动上,我已成为一个马克思主义者了,而且从此我也认为自己是一个马克思主义者了。”“1920年冬天,我第一次在政治上把工人们组织起来了,在这项工作中我开始受到马克思主义理论和俄国革命历史的影响的指引。” 1920年夏—1921年初,毛泽东转变成为马克思主义者之后,便开始积极宣传、研究、实践马克思主义。他发起成立了文化书社,大量销售马克思列宁主义著作和革命进步书刊;他参与创建了湖南“马克思主义研究会”,学习和研究《共产党宣言》、《国家与革命》等马克思列宁主义著作,研究俄国革命、第三国际状况等。

With the active promotion of Chen Duxiu, Li Dazhao, and others, and with the direct assistance of the Communist International and the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks), communist groups were successively established in various parts of China. These communist groups, on the one hand, disseminated Marxist works and propagated Marxism among intellectuals; on the other hand, by means such as running workers’ night schools and creating popular publications, they explained and propagated Marxism to the working class, led the working class in various struggles, and helped the working class establish trade union organizations. While promoting the development of the Chinese workers’ movement, these communist groups made the initial attempts to integrate Marxism with the Chinese workers’ movement. The Communist Party of China thus emerged as the times required.

在陈独秀、李大钊等人的积极推动下,在共产国际、俄国共产党(布)的直接帮助下,中国各地共产主义小组相继建立起来。这些共产主义小组,一方面在知识分子中传播马克思主义著作、宣传马克思主义,另一方面通过开办工人夜校、创办通俗刊物等方式、途径,向工人阶级讲解和宣传马克思主义,领导工人阶级进行各种斗争,并帮助工人阶级建立工会组织。在推动中国工人运动开展的同时,这些共产主义小组进行了把马克思主义与中国工人运动相结合的最初尝试。中国共产党由此应运而生。

III. The Historical Reasons and Main Content of the Dissemination of Marxism-Leninism in China after the October Revolution

三、十月革命后马克思列宁主义在中国传播的历史缘由和主要内容

Around the time of the founding of the Communist Party of China, various ideological trends surged and numerous political parties stood in profusion. It was precisely the widespread dissemination of Marxism and Marxism-Leninism in China that led to the emergence and prominence of the Communist Party of China. Mao Zedong pointed out: “A doctrine is like a flag; once the flag is raised, people have something to look to and know where to go.” General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “What kind of doctrine a country implements depends on whether this doctrine can solve the historical issues facing that country.” This doctrine is Marxism and Marxism-Leninism. These historical issues are the completion of the historical tasks facing modern Chinese society.

中国共产党成立前后,各种思潮激荡,各个政党林立。正是马克思主义、马克思列宁主义在中国的广泛传播,中国共产党应运而生、脱颖而出。毛泽东指出:“主义譬如一面旗子,旗子立起了,大家才有所指望,才知所趋赴。”习近平总书记指出:“一个国家实行什么样的主义,关键要看这个主义能否解决这个国家面临的历史性课题。”这个主义,就是马克思主义、马克思列宁主义。这个历史性课题,就是完成近代中国社会面临的历史任务。

(A) The “Two-Way Journey” of Marxism-Leninism and China

(一)马克思列宁主义与中国的“双向奔赴”

Mao Zedong incisively analyzed the historical reasons for the “two-way journey” of Marxism-Leninism and China, pointing out: “The Russians went through hardships over several decades before they found Marxism. Many things in China are the same as or similar to those in Russia before the October Revolution. The oppression of feudalism was the same. Economic and cultural backwardness were similar. Both countries were backward, and China was even more so. The advanced people, in order to rejuvenate the country, spared no hardship in seeking revolutionary truth—this was the same.” This means that the ability of Marxism and Marxism-Leninism to take root in China and demonstrate powerful strength was not accidental, but had realistic possibility and historical inevitability.

毛泽东精辟剖析了马克思列宁主义与中国“双向奔赴”的历史缘由,指出:“俄国人曾经在几十个年头内,经历艰难困苦,方才找到了马克思主义。中国有许多事情和十月革命以前的俄国相同,或者近似。封建主义的压迫,这是相同的。经济和文化落后,这是近似的。两个国家都落后,中国则更落后。先进的人们,为了使国家复兴,不惜艰苦奋斗,寻找革命真理,这是相同的。”这就是说,马克思主义、马克思列宁主义之所以能够植根中国,并展现出强大力量,不是偶然的,而是有着现实的可能性和历史的必然性。

1. Marxism and Marxism-Leninism bear the historical mission of “seeking liberation for humanity,” while modern Chinese society faced the historical task of “achieving national independence, people’s liberation, and realizing national prosperity, strength, and people’s happiness.” The two are highly compatible.

1. 马克思主义、马克思列宁主义担负着“为人类求解放”的历史使命,近代中国社会面临着“争取民族独立、人民解放和实现国家富强、人民幸福”的历史任务,二者是高度契合的。

2. The national conditions of modern China and Russia before the October Revolution were identical or similar; Soviet Russia after the October Revolution, and later the Soviet Union, adopted an equal policy toward China.

2. 近代中国与十月革命前的俄国,其国情是相同的或近似的;十月革命后的苏维埃俄国以及后来的苏联,则采取了平等的对华政策。

3. “The aggression of the imperialists shattered the fond dreams of the Chinese about learning from the West.” “A bourgeois republic, which existed in foreign countries, could not exist in China, because China was a country under imperialist oppression.” “The history of imperialist aggression against China, of their opposition to China’s independence and to her development of capitalism, is the modern history of China.” Imperialist aggression was the general root cause of all the disasters and calamities of modern China.

3.“帝国主义的侵略打破了中国人学西方的迷梦。”“资产阶级的共和国,外国有过的,中国不能有,因为中国是受帝国主义压迫的国家”。“帝国主义侵略中国,反对中国独立,反对中国发展资本主义的历史,就是中国的近代史。”帝国主义的侵略,是造成近代中国一切灾难和祸害的总根源。

4. The founders of the Communist Party of China possessed the historical initiative and historical consciousness to study and apply Marxism-Leninism. At the same time, this brand-new “weapon” of Marxism-Leninism “changed the face of China” and is the “true scripture” of us Communists. It was precisely Marxism-Leninism that led the Chinese people out of the long night of “a homeland dark as storm-laden rock.” [9]9 “A homeland dark as storm-laken rock” (风雨如磐暗故园) is a line from a poem by the modern Chinese writer Lu Xun (1881–1936), expressing the oppressive darkness of China under imperialist and feudal rule. When Marxism-Leninism came to China, it simultaneously initiated the historical process of adapting Marxism to the Chinese context. In 1941, Mao Zedong pointed out: “The twenty years of the Chinese Communist Party have been twenty years in which the universal truth of Marxism-Leninism has been increasingly combined with the concrete practice of the Chinese revolution.”

4. 中国共产党的创建者们具有学习、运用马克思列宁主义的历史主动和历史自觉。同时,马克思列宁主义这个崭新的“武器”,使“中国的面目就起了变化了”,是“我们共产党人的‘真经’”。正是马克思列宁主义,引领中国人民走出了“风雨如磐暗故园”的漫漫长夜。马克思列宁主义来到中国,同时开启了马克思主义中国化的历史进程。1941年,毛泽东指出:“中国共产党的二十年,就是马克思列宁主义的普遍真理和中国革命的具体实践日益结合的二十年。”

(II) The Focus of Disseminating Marxism-Leninism after the October Revolution

(二)十月革命之后传播马克思列宁主义的重点

From the October Revolution in Russia to the founding of the Communist Party of China, the dissemination of Marxism-Leninism in China had new characteristics: China’s advanced revolutionary intellectuals began to consciously, actively, and broadly disseminate Marxism-Leninism. However, under the international and domestic conditions of the time, they could only selectively disseminate those ideas of Marxism-Leninism relevant to the central task of “national salvation and survival,” and could not systematically or comprehensively disseminate all the content of Marxism-Leninism. Among these, historical materialism and the theory of class struggle were the focus that the vast majority of China’s early Marxist-Leninists first accepted and actively propagated. This was determined not only by the broad and profound scientific system and rich content of Marxism-Leninism itself, but also by the major historical opportunities and practical reasons of the time.

俄国十月革命之后到中国共产党成立之前,马克思列宁主义在中国的传播是有其新的特点的,即中国先进的革命知识分子开始自觉主动、广泛传播马克思列宁主义。但是,在当时的国际国内形势下,只能是针对“救亡图存”这一中心任务而选择性地传播马克思列宁主义的相关思想,而不可能系统、全面地传播马克思列宁主义的所有内容。其中,唯物史观和阶级斗争学说是中国绝大多数早期马克思列宁主义者首先接受和积极宣传的重点之所在。这不仅是由马克思列宁主义本身博大精深的科学体系和丰富内容所决定的,而且也是由当时重大的历史际遇和现实原因所造成的。

First, it mainly originated from the summarization and borrowing of the experience of the Russian October Revolution.

其一,主要源于对俄国十月革命经验的总结和借鉴。

Lenin lived in the last thirty years of the 19th century and the first twenty-odd years of the 20th century. He scientifically answered the major issues of the era of imperialism, founded Leninism, and simultaneously developed Marxism into the stage of Marxism-Leninism. Leninism is the product of the combination of Marxism with the concrete reality of relatively economically and culturally backward Russia, and the product of the combination of Marxism with the new phenomena and new characteristics of the era of imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially the first twenty-odd years of the 20th century, as well as the new developments and new trends of the international workers’ movement. Lenin both inherited and upheld, and innovated and developed, the ideas of the founders of Marxism, Marx and Engels, concerning the development process and inevitable trends of human society, especially capitalism and socialism.

列宁生活于19世纪最后30年和20世纪头20多年。他科学回答了帝国主义时代的重大课题,创立了列宁主义,同时把马克思主义发展到马克思列宁主义阶段。列宁主义是马克思主义同经济文化相对落后的俄国的具体实际相结合的产物,是马克思主义同19世纪末20世纪初特别是20世纪头20多年帝国主义时代的新现象、新特征和国际工人运动的新发展、新趋势相结合的产物。列宁对马克思主义创始人马克思、恩格斯关于人类社会特别是资本主义、社会主义发展进程和必然走势的思想,既有继承和坚持,又有创新和发展。

Lenin’s inheritance and upholding of the theories of Marx and Engels are mainly reflected in: 1. The inevitable replacement of capitalism by socialism and communism is the general law of the historical development of human society; 2. The proletariat, which coexists with and opposes the bourgeoisie, is the leading force and main force for realizing the transformation of capitalism into a new society of socialism and communism; 3. The struggle of the proletariat against the bourgeoisie, and the proletarian revolution, are the basic means and basic paths for overthrowing the old world of capitalism and creating a new world of socialism and communism; 4. The Marxist political party is the vanguard of the proletariat and the organizational force and fundamental guarantee for realizing the replacement of capitalism by socialism and communism; 5. Proletarian internationalism is the international condition for realizing the historical mission of the proletariat, and so on.

列宁对马克思、恩格斯的理论的继承与坚持,主要体现在:1.社会主义、共产主义必然代替资本主义,是人类社会历史发展的一般规律;2.与资产阶级拌生和对立的无产阶级,是实现资本主义转变为社会主义、共产主义新社会的领导力量、主要力量;3.无产阶级反对资产阶级的斗争、无产阶级革命,是推翻资本主义旧世界、创建社会主义和共产主义新世界的基本手段、基本途径;4.马克思主义政党是无产阶级的先锋队,是实现社会主义、共产主义代替资本主义的组织力量和根本保证;5.无产阶级国际主义,是实现无产阶级历史使命的国际条件,等等。

Lenin’s innovation and development of the theories of Marx and Engels are mainly concentrated in: 1. The transformation from revolution “occurring and winning simultaneously” to “occurring and winning first in one or a few countries”; 2. The transformation from two possibilities of violent revolution and peaceful development to placing greater emphasis and stress on the role of violent revolution; 3. Regarding the fate of the Russian rural commune, Marx and Engels had proposed the idea that backward Eastern countries might be able to leap over the “Caudine Forks” of capitalism; [10]10 “Caudine Forks” (卡夫丁峡谷) refers to a narrow mountain pass in ancient Italy where a Roman army was forced to surrender; Marx and Engels used it as a metaphor for the capitalist stage of development, suggesting that some societies might bypass it. Lenin believed that in Russia, the true “friends of the people” who were willing to eliminate the oppression of capitalists, landlords, and the tsarist system were not the Narodniks but the Marxists.

列宁对马克思、恩格斯的理论的创新与发展,主要集中在:1.由革命“同时发生和胜利”转变为“一国或少数几国首先发生和胜利”;2.由暴力革命与和平发展两种可能性转变为更加注重和强调暴力革命的作用;3.关于俄国农村公社的命运问题,马克思、恩格斯曾提出东方落后国家可能跨越资本主义“卡夫丁峡谷”的设想,列宁认为在俄国愿意消灭资本家、地主压迫和沙皇制度的真正的“人民之友”绝不是民粹派而是马克思主义者。

The October Revolution, which shook the world, transformed socialism from a scientific theory into a real system, thereby initiating the preliminary practice of socialist construction. At the same time, within the international communist movement, there emerged a brief phenomenon of socialism developing from one country to multiple countries. In the process of Marxism-Leninism being introduced into China, the October Revolution was a particularly important event that played a particularly important role. China’s advanced intellectuals, especially the pioneers of the Communist Party of China, correctly summarized the important experiences of the October Revolution, advocated taking Russia as a teacher, and following the path of the October Revolution, the path of the Russian people. Cai Hesen even distilled it into several concise formulas: “The starting point of the Russian social revolution = historical materialism. The method = class war + class dictatorship. The goal = creating a communist society.” [11]11 Cai Hesen (1895–1931) was an early leader of the Communist Party of China and a close associate of Mao Zedong, known for his theoretical work on Marxism. Therefore, at the time of the founding of the Communist Party of China, based on the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism, the experience of the Russian October Revolution, and the national conditions of China at that time, principles such as the dictatorship of the proletariat, class struggle, and violent revolution were written into the Constitution of the Communist Party of China. [12]12 The Constitution of the Communist Party of China (中国共产党章程) is the Party’s fundamental governing document, first adopted at its First National Congress in 1921. Regarding the motivation for Chinese people and all humanity to turn their gaze toward Russia, Qu Qiubai analyzed in the preface to “A Collection of Short Stories by Famous Russian Writers”: “In such a dark and miserable society as China, everyone wants to open up a new path in the current state of life. Hearing the sound of the old Russian society collapsing is like a footstep in a deserted valley; it is impossible not to be moved, and therefore everyone wants to come and discuss and study Russia.” Mao Zedong pointed out: “The Russians carried out the October Revolution and created the first socialist state in the world. The great revolutionary energy of the Russian proletariat and working people, which had been hidden underground and unseen by foreigners, suddenly erupted like a volcano under the leadership of Lenin and Stalin, and Chinese and all humanity began to look at the Russians with new eyes.” That is to say, the victory of the October Revolution completely changed the views of Chinese people and all humanity toward Russia, and exchanges between China and Russia changed from possibility to reality, becoming increasingly active and frequent.

震撼世界的十月革命,使社会主义从科学的理论变为现实的制度,社会主义建设的初步实践由此开启。同时,在国际共产主义运动中,也出现了一个社会主义从一国到多国发展的短暂气象。在马克思列宁主义传入中国的过程中,十月革命是一个特殊重要的事件,起到了特殊重要的作用。中国先进的知识分子特别是中国共产党的先驱者们对十月革命的重要经验进行了正确总结,主张以俄为师,走十月革命的道路、走俄国人的道路。蔡和森甚至提炼出了几个简明的公式:“俄国社会革命出发点=唯物史观。方法=阶级战争+阶级专政。目的=创造共产主义的社会。”因此,在中国共产党成立之初,根据马克思列宁主义基本原理和俄国十月革命的经验以及当时中国的国情,将无产阶级专政、阶级斗争、暴力革命原则等写进了《中国共产党章程》。关于中国人和全人类把目光转向俄国的动因,瞿秋白在《〈俄罗斯名家短篇小说集〉序》中分析道:“在中国这样黑暗悲惨的社会里,人人都想在生活的现状里开辟一条新道路。听着俄国旧社会崩裂的声浪,真是空谷足音,不由得人不心动,因此大家都要来讨论研究俄国。”毛泽东指出:“俄国人举行了十月革命,创立了世界上第一个社会主义国家。过去蕴藏在地下为外国人所看不见的伟大的俄国无产阶级和劳动人民的革命精力,在列宁、斯大林领导之下,像火山一样突然爆发出来了,中国人和全人类对俄国人都另眼相看了。”这就是说,十月革命的胜利彻底改变了中国人和全人类对俄国的看法,中俄两国之间的交往由可能变为现实并愈益活跃而频繁。

Second, it mainly originated from the objective practical needs of the social revolution in modern China.

其二,主要源于近代中国社会革命的客观现实需要。

The brilliant example of the victory of the Russian October Revolution and the Bolsheviks’ seizure of state power resonated with the practical demands of Chinese society at the time to oppose Western capitalist powers and feudalism, and to strive for national independence and people’s liberation. In the process of a patriotic upsurge sweeping China, there emerged an eager desire to quickly understand and practice the Sinicized Marxism of the Soviet model. Although conditions for a comprehensive and profound understanding of this Sinicized Marxism were lacking at the time, the pressing reality prompted people to be willing to combine the Sinicized Marxism that had already achieved revolutionary success with solving China’s specific practical problems. All of this led to the Sinicized Marxism of the Soviet model rapidly attracting attention and resonance in China, leading to its widespread dissemination and even practice, rather than remaining merely the fragmentary knowledge of Marx’s and Engels’ Marxism introduced by Western missionaries and scholars returning from Europe and Japan.

俄国十月革命胜利、布尔什维克取得政权这一光辉范例,契合了当时中国社会反对西方资本主义列强和封建主义、争取民族独立和人民解放的现实诉求。在爱国热潮席卷中国的过程中,出现了快捷认识并实践苏俄化的马克思主义的热望,虽然当时缺乏全面、深刻理解苏俄化的马克思主义的条件,但紧迫的现实则促使人们愿意把已经取得革命成功的苏俄化的马克思主义和解决中国的具体现实问题结合起来。所有这些,促成了苏俄化的马克思主义迅速在中国引起关注和共鸣以致广泛传播和实践,而不再仅仅是西方传教士及从欧洲和日本归来的学人所介绍的马克思、恩格斯的马克思主义的知识片段。

For a long time, the Chinese people’s gaze when learning from foreign countries had never been directed toward Russia, a country that was relatively economically and culturally backward. After the October Revolution, the Soviet Russian government implemented a series of socialist policies, bringing about enormous and profound changes in Russian society. The Soviet Russian government also issued two declarations to China in 1919 and 1920, announcing the abolition of all privileges of Tsarist Russia in China. This stood in stark contrast to the long-term aggression and partition of China by the Western powers, especially the power politics at the Paris Peace Conference. In other words, the domestic and foreign policies of the Soviet Russian government met the needs of China’s social development and the aspirations of the Chinese people. Progressive Chinese, especially the pioneers of the Communist Party of China, recognized the socialist system of Russia as the most just, most reasonable, and most beautiful social system in the world, and Marxism-Leninism thus spread widely.

长期以来,中国人向外国学习的目光从来都没有投向过俄国这样一个经济文化相对落后的国家。十月革命后苏俄政府实施一系列社会主义政策,使俄国社会发生了巨大而深刻的变化。苏俄政府还于1919年、1920年两次发表对华宣言,宣布废除沙俄在华一切特权。这同西方列强长期侵略、瓜分中国,尤其是巴黎和会上的强权政治形成鲜明对照。这就是说,苏俄政府的内外政策,符合中国社会发展的需要和中国人民的渴求。中国先进的人们特别是中国共产党的先驱者们认定俄国的社会主义制度是世界上最公正、最合理、最美好的社会制度,马克思列宁主义因而得到广泛传播。

The factors mentioned above made Soviet Russia the main channel through which China ultimately accepted Marxism-Leninism. Among these, the Communist Party of China is the political organizational form for integrating Marxism with China’s concrete realities and the leading force in China’s revolutionary practical movement. It is in this sense that Mao Zedong pointed out: “The vanguard of the Chinese proletariat, after learning Marxism-Leninism following the October Revolution, established the Communist Party of China. It then entered into political struggle, traversed a tortuous path, and after twenty-eight years, finally achieved basic victory.”

上述诸种因素,使苏俄最终成为中国接受马克思列宁主义的主要渠道。其中,中国共产党是马克思主义同中国具体实际相结合的政治组织形式,是中国革命实践运动的领导力量。正是在这一意义上,毛泽东指出:“中国无产阶级的先锋队,在十月革命以后学了马克思列宁主义,建立了中国共产党。接着就进入政治斗争,经过曲折的道路,走了二十八年,方才取得了基本的胜利。”

Third, reflecting from the end and being adept at summing up are the main characteristics and fine qualities of the Chinese Communists.

其三,从后思索、善于总结是中国共产党人的主要特质和优良品格。

“The salvos of the October Revolution brought us Marxism-Leninism.” This is the scientific summary by the Chinese Communists of the revolutionary path they have traversed and their rich practice. As Marx pointed out: “Reflection on the forms of human life, hence also their scientific analysis, generally takes a course directly opposite to their actual development. Reflection begins post festum, that is, with the results of the process of development already in hand.”

“十月革命一声炮响,给我们送来了马克思列宁主义。”这是中国共产党人对自己所走过的革命道路和丰富实践的科学总结。正如马克思所指出的:“对人类生活形式的思索,从而对这些形式的科学分析,总是采取同实际发展相反的道路。这种思索是从事后开始的,就是说,是从发展过程的完成的结果开始的。”

The concept of “Marxism-Leninism” was proposed and used by the Fifth Congress of the Communist International, but the content of Marxism-Leninism was not formed only at that time. On July 8, 1924, the Fifth Congress of the Communist International, in the “Outline of Propaganda Work Concerning the Communist International and Its Sections” adopted before its closing, proposed that “one of the primary tasks of the Communist International and its sections is to make this advanced theory—Marxism-Leninism—the common property of their members” and “to make every communist understand the significance of mastering the theory of Marxism-Leninism.”

“马克思列宁主义”的概念,是共产国际五大提出和使用的,但马克思列宁主义的内容并不是到这时才形成的。1924年7月8日,共产国际五大在闭幕前通过的《关于共产国际及其支部的宣传活动提纲》中提出,“共产国际及其各支部的首要任务之一,就是把这种先进的理论——马克思列宁主义变成自己党员的共同财产”,“使每个共产党了解到精通马克思列宁主义理论的意义”。

In January 1925, the Fourth National Congress of the CPC was held. The resolution on propaganda work formulated by the congress used the concept of “Marxism-Leninism” for the first time in the documents of the Communist Party of China. In December 1929, in the resolution drafted for the Ninth Party Congress of the Fourth Red Army, Mao Zedong himself used the concept of “Marxism-Leninism” for the first time. On October 22, 2022, the “Constitution of the Communist Party of China,” partially revised and adopted by the 20th National Congress of the CPC, stipulates: “Marxism-Leninism reveals the laws governing the development of human society and history; its basic principles are correct and possess powerful vitality.” “Adhering to the basic principles of Marxism-Leninism and following the path suited to China’s conditions, voluntarily chosen by the Chinese people, China’s socialist cause will surely achieve ultimate victory.” It is in this sense that the Communist Party of China, the Chinese revolution, adapting Marxism to the Chinese context and the needs of the times, Marxism adapted to the Chinese context and the needs of the times, and the Russian Bolshevik Party, the Russian October Revolution, Marxism, and Marxism-Leninism are all extremely important historical existences and also extremely important contemporary existences. Therefore, conducting in-depth research on them is a strategic and enduring topic that remains ever new.

1925年1月,党的四大召开。大会制定的宣传工作的决议案在中国共产党的文献中第一次使用“马克思列宁主义”的概念。1929年12月,在为红四军第九次党代表大会起草的决议案中,毛泽东本人第一次使用了“马克思列宁主义”的概念。2022年10月22日,党的二十大部分修改通过的《中国共产党章程》载明:“马克思列宁主义揭示了人类社会历史发展的规律,它的基本原理是正确的,具有强大的生命力。”“坚持马克思列宁主义的基本原理,走中国人民自愿选择的适合中国国情的道路,中国的社会主义事业必将取得最终的胜利。”正是在这个意义上,中国共产党、中国革命、马克思主义中国化时代化、中国化时代化马克思主义和俄国布尔什维克党、俄国十月革命、马克思主义、马克思列宁主义,都是极其重要的历史存在,也是极其重要的现实存在,因此对其进行深入研究是历久弥新的战略课题、恒久课题。

Marxism possesses distinct scientific, revolutionary, practical, people-centered, and developmental characteristics. These distinct features embody the essence and mission of Marxism, define its historical status and great significance, and also indicate that Marxism is not a dogma to be memorized by rote and mechanically repeated. In the preface to the 1872 German edition of the “Manifesto of the Communist Party,” Marx and Engels pointed out that the practical application of the general principles of the “Manifesto” “must always and everywhere depend on the historical conditions obtaining at the time.” “Always and everywhere” is a spatiotemporal concept. Lenin pointed out: “The essence of Marxism, the living soul of Marxism: a concrete analysis of a concrete situation.” The “concrete analysis of concrete problems” that Lenin spoke of is precisely what Engels meant by “always and everywhere.” This reveals to us that when Marxism-Leninism came to China, it also faced the problem of adapting to China’s local conditions, that is, seeking truth from facts to solve China’s problems, and keeping pace with the times to create something new, that is, the problem of upholding fundamental principles and breaking new ground.

马克思主义具有鲜明的科学性、革命性、实践性、人民性和发展性。这些鲜明特征,体现了马克思主义的本质和使命,厘定了马克思主义的历史地位和重大意义,同时也表明马克思主义不是必须背得烂熟并机械地加以重复的教条。马克思、恩格斯为《共产党宣言》撰写的1872年德文版序言指出,《宣言》中一般原理的实际运用,“随时随地都要以当时的历史条件为转移”。“随时随地”,是一个时空概念。列宁指出:“马克思主义的精髓,马克思主义的活的灵魂:对具体情况作具体分析。”列宁所讲的“具体问题具体分析”,就是恩格斯所讲的“随时随地”。这就昭示我们,马克思列宁主义来到中国,也有一个适应中国的水土的问题,即实事求是地解决中国的问题,与时俱进地创造一些新的东西,即守正创新问题。

Over the past one hundred years and more, the Communist Party of China has faced different situations and shouldered different

一百余年来,中国共产党在不同的时期面临着不同的形势、肩负着不同的主要任务。在实现这些主要任务的过程中,中国共产党人先后创立了毛泽东思想、形成了中国特色社会主义理论体系、创立了习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想。新时代新征程,坚持习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想,就是坚持马克思主义,就是坚持马克思列宁主义。坚持习近平新时代中国特色社会主义思想,必须深刻理解把握这一当代中国马克思主义、二十一世纪马克思主义的科学体系和丰富内涵、世界观和方法论、中国意义和世界意义、现实意义和历史意义,进一步全面深化改革,以中国式现代化全面推动强国建设、民族复兴的伟大进程。这是历史的递嬗和现实诉求,也是历史的规律和未来态势。（注释略）

Online editor: Zhang Jian

网络编辑：张剑