A Historical Materialist Interpretation of the Complex Relationship between Cultural Forms and the Development of the Times and Its Contemporary Implications

The *Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy* (hereinafter referred to as the *Introduction*) is the “general introduction” Marx wrote for *A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy*. In the *Introduction*, Marx “explains a series of important ideas concerning the relationship between the ideological superstructure and the economic base, and between literature and art and material production.” [1]1 This is a quotation from the 1978 speech “Speech at the Forum on Literature and Art” by Deng Xiaoping. Taking ancient Greek art as his focal point, Marx analyzed the complex interrelationship between the times and culture. This topic, rich in academic content, pertains to the foundational theory of building socialist culture with Chinese characteristics and how to realize the “Second Integration,” [2]2 The “Second Integration” refers to the combination of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s excellent traditional culture, as proposed by Xi Jinping. and thus merits in-depth exploration by contemporary scholars.

《〈政治经济学批判〉导言》（以下简称《导言》）是马克思为《政治经济学批判》撰写的“总的导言”。马克思在《导言》里“说明了关于意识形态上层建筑和经济基础之间、文学艺术和物质生产之间的关系的一系列重要思想”。马克思以古希腊艺术为着力点，分析了时代与文化之间的复杂关联性。这个富有学术内涵的话题，关涉中国特色社会主义文化建设和如何实现“第二个结合”的基础理论，值得当代学人深入探讨。

I. Classical Artistic and Cultural Production “Can No Longer Be Created in Their Classically Epoch-Making Form”

一、古典文化艺术生产“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”

In the *Introduction*, Marx points out, “In the case of certain forms of art, e.g. the epic, it can even be admitted that they can no longer be created in their classically epoch-making form once artistic production as such has begun,” and further uses the metaphor, “A man cannot become a child again, or he becomes childish.” [3]3 This is a paraphrase of Marx’s text from the *Introduction*. These are expressions from Marx’s perspective of historical materialism, explaining the complex relationship between the times and culture.

马克思在《导言》中指出，“就某些艺术形式，例如史诗来说，甚至谁都承认：当艺术生产一旦作为艺术生产出现，它们就再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”，并进一步比喻道，“一个成人不能再变成儿童，否则就变得稚气了”。这些是马克思从唯物史观的视角阐释时代与文化之间的复杂关联的表述。

First, the emergence and disappearance of cultural phenomena in a given era are determined by the conditions of social production in that era. In the 1883 preface to the *Communist Manifesto*, Engels pointed out, “the economic production and the structure of society necessarily derived from it form the foundation for the political and intellectual history of that epoch,” indicating that the spiritual culture of a specific era must be based on the material conditions and social structure of that era. In the *Introduction*, Marx, taking the rise and fall of ancient Greek art and mythology as his basis, provides a profound explanation of the relationship between the times and culture. On the one hand, he reveals the temporal roots of the emergence of ancient Greek mythology, namely, “All mythology overcomes and dominates and shapes the forces of nature in the imagination and through the imagination.” In the childhood of human history, whether the ancient Greeks living on the Aegean Sea or the people of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties hunting and farming in the Yellow River basin, all were in an era of underdeveloped social productive forces, and their understanding of the laws of the external world and of their own activities was in a state of blindness. During this period, people felt that the alien, dominating natural laws stood in opposition to them. Natural phenomena like “a sudden storm arising, then a clear sky stretching for ten thousand miles” made the ancient Greeks and the people of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties feel incomprehensible and terrified, as if some mysterious god of fate controlled life and death. People had no ability to control nature and could only “overcome and dominate and shape the forces of nature in the imagination and through the imagination”; thus, mythology was born in “fantasy.” Ancient Greek mythology became the matrix of Greek art, so Marx said, “Greek art presupposes Greek mythology, i.e. nature and the social forms themselves already processed in an unconsciously artistic way by the popular imagination.” On the other hand, he also believed that ancient Greek mythology disappeared with the disappearance of the temporal conditions that gave rise to it. With social progress and technological development, humanity gradually enhanced its ability to understand the external world, breaking free from the state of “overcoming and dominating and shaping the forces of nature in the imagination and through the imagination.” The flourishing era of ancient Greek mythology, along with the immature social conditions that could not return, became a relic of history. Marx asked in the *Introduction*, “Is Achilles possible with powder and lead? Or is the *Iliad* possible with the printing press and even printing machines? Do not song and saga and the muse necessarily come to an end with the printer’s bar, hence do not the necessary conditions of epic poetry disappear?” [4]4 This is a paraphrase of Marx’s rhetorical questions in the *Introduction*. The fundamental reason why ancient Greek art, born from the matrix of mythology, is difficult to reproduce in later ages is that advanced modes of production changed people’s superficial understanding of nature, society, and humanity itself, moving from a stage of ignorance towards an era of scientific understanding.

第一，某个时代文化现象的产生与消亡都是由所处时代的社会生产条件决定的。恩格斯在1883年为《共产党宣言》所写的序言中指出，“每一历史时代的经济生产以及必然由此产生的社会结构，是该时代政治的和精神的历史的基础”，表明特定时代的精神文化要以特定时代的物质条件和社会结构为基础。在《导言》里，马克思以古希腊艺术和神话兴衰史为依据，对时代与文化的关系作出了深刻阐释。一方面，他揭示了古希腊神话产生的时代根源，即“任何神话都是用想象和借助想象以征服自然力，支配自然力，把自然力加以形象化”。在人类历史的童年期，无论是生活在爱琴海的古希腊人，还是狩猎耕耘于黄河流域的夏商周人，都处于社会生产力不发达的时代，对外部世界的规律和对人们自身活动的认识都处于盲目状态。这一时期人们认为异己的、支配着人们的自然规律同人们相对立，“一时狂风暴雨乍起，瞬间又万里晴空”的自然现象让古希腊人和夏商周人感到不可思议而惊恐万分，好像某种神秘的命运之神支配着人们的生死。人们没有能力掌控自然，只能“用想象和借助想象以征服自然力”，神话便在“幻想”中产生了。古希腊神话成为希腊艺术的母胎，所以马克思说：“希腊艺术的前提是希腊神话，也就是已经通过人民的幻想用一种不自觉的艺术方式加工过的自然和社会形式本身。”另一方面，他还认为古希腊神话随着产生的时代条件的消失而消失。随着社会的进步、科技的发达，人类逐步提高了认识外部世界的能力，摆脱了“用想象和借助想象以征服自然力”的状态，古希腊神话繁盛时代也随着那些未成熟的社会条件不能复返而成为历史陈迹。马克思在《导言》中问道：“随着印刷机的出现，歌谣、传说和诗神缪斯岂不是必然要绝迹，因而史诗的必要条件岂不是要消失吗？”以神话为母胎的古希腊艺术难以在后世再现，其根本原因是先进的生产方式改变了人们对自然、社会以及对人自身的粗浅认识，摆脱蒙昧阶段而走向科学认识的时代。

Second, it reveals the essence of many cultural phenomena in the history of culture, both ancient and modern, Chinese and foreign, that are labeled “renaissance.” According to Marx’s view that classical culture “can no longer be created in their classically epoch-making form,” those cultural phenomena in the history of culture, both ancient and modern, Chinese and foreign, that are labeled “renaissance” absorb the achievements of past cultures, but are not simple repetitions of past cultures. Instead, they are new cultures developed under new historical conditions, cultures possessing the content of a new era. For example, the Renaissance movement that arose in Europe in the 14th century, although it raised the banner of reviving ancient Greek culture, did not in essence revive ancient Greek culture. Rather, it created a new bourgeois culture adapted to the capitalist mode of production, producing a large number of great artists and humanist scholars that could not have been produced in any period of ancient Greek civilization, as well as a large number of great works important in the history of art, literature, and thought. It was another peak in the history of Western cultural development. Not only could the Renaissance movement not repeat ancient Greek culture, but the Renaissance movement itself, once the conditions for its emergence had disappeared, could hardly reappear in subsequent history. As Engels pointed out, “Italy experienced an unexpected flourishing of the arts, which seemed like a reflection of classical antiquity and was never again achieved.” [5]5 This is a paraphrase of Engels’s comment on the Italian Renaissance from his work *Dialectics of Nature*. Following the Renaissance, another peak of thought and culture appeared in Europe from the 17th to the 18th century—the Enlightenment. The thinkers of the Enlightenment developed the tradition of opposing superstition from ancient Greece and Rome, and also absorbed the humanist essence of the Renaissance, but no one considers the Enlightenment a reenactment of ancient Greek culture, ancient Roman culture, or the culture of the Renaissance. Therefore, the cultures produced in several flourishing periods of thought in Western history—ancient Greek culture, ancient Roman culture, Renaissance culture, Enlightenment thought—each present content characteristic of their respective eras and cannot replace one another. Engels believed that modern socialism “in its theoretical form, it initially appears as a further, allegedly more consistent development of the principles advanced by the great French Enlightenment thinkers of the 18th century,” [6]6 This is a paraphrase of Engels’s statement in *Socialism: Utopian and Scientific*. but Engels certainly would not consider modern socialism a copy of Enlightenment thought.

第二，揭示古今中外文化史上不少冠名“复兴”的文化现象的实质。按照马克思关于古典文化“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”的观点，古今中外文化史上那些冠之以“复兴”的文化现象，吸纳了昔日文化的成果，但并非昔日文化的简单重复，而是在新的历史条件下发展出来的新文化，是具有了新的时代内容的文化。比如，十四世纪欧洲兴起的文艺复兴运动，虽然打着复兴古希腊文化的旗号，但是实质上并不是复兴了古希腊文化，而是创建了与资本主义生产方式相适应的新兴资产阶级文化，产生了一大批古希腊文明各时期无法产生的伟大的艺术家和人文学者，以及一大批在艺术史、文学史和思想史上重要的伟大作品，是西方文化发展历史上的又一个高峰。不但文艺复兴运动不可能重复古希腊文化，而且文艺复兴运动本身在其产生条件消逝的情况下也难以在其后的历史中重现。正如恩格斯所指出的，“意大利出现了出人意料的艺术繁荣，这种艺术繁荣好像是古典古代的反照，以后就再也不曾达到过”。继文艺复兴运动后，17世纪至18世纪的欧洲又出现了一个思想文化高峰——启蒙运动。启蒙运动思想家发扬了古希腊和古罗马反对迷信的传统，也吸收了文艺复兴运动的人本主义精髓，但没有人认为启蒙运动是古希腊文化、古罗马文化以及文艺复兴时期文化的重演。所以，西方思想史上几个文化繁盛期产生的文化——古希腊文化、古罗马文化、文艺复兴时期的文化、启蒙思想——呈现出各自时代特色的内容而无法互相替代。恩格斯认为现代社会主义“就其理论形式来说，它起初表现为18世纪法国伟大的启蒙学者们所提出的各种原则的进一步的、据称是更彻底的发展”，但恩格斯肯定不会认为现代社会主义是启蒙思想的翻版。

Similarly, the cultural splendors that appeared in China’s ancient history, such as the “Bronze Culture” at the turn of the Shang and Zhou dynasties and the “Hundred Schools of Thought” [7]7 “Hundred Schools of Thought” refers to the flourishing of diverse philosophical and political schools during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (c. 770–221 BCE). during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, once they declined, as Marx said, “can no longer be created in their classically epoch-making form.” Whether it was the Wei-Jin demeanor [8]8 “Wei-Jin demeanor” refers to the distinctive intellectual and artistic style of the Wei and Jin dynasties (220–420 CE), often characterized by unconventional behavior and philosophical Daoist influence. amidst the chaos of division, the powerful voice of the High Tang, or the refined and introverted culture of the Northern and Southern Song dynasties, all were distinctly different from the culture of the “Hundred Schools of Thought” period of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States. By the late Qing dynasty, the feudal system encountered a major crisis. From the Kang-Liang Reform Movement [9]9 The Kang-Liang Reform Movement (1898), also known as the Hundred Days’ Reform, was a failed attempt at modernization led by Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao. to the New Culture Movement, [10]10 The New Culture Movement (mid-1910s–1920s) was a Chinese intellectual movement rejecting traditional Confucian values in favor of modern, Western-inspired ideas. and then to the May Fourth Movement, [11]11 The May Fourth Movement (1919) was a Chinese anti-imperialist, cultural, and political protest movement that spurred the spread of Marxism in China. the intellectual world was in turmoil. Although later generations called it a “Hundred Schools of Thought,” it was not a reappearance of the substantive “Hundred Schools of Thought” situation of the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.

同样，我国古代历史上出现过的文化盛景，如商周之际的“青铜文化”、春秋战国的“百家争鸣”等，这些文化一旦衰亡，就如马克思所言“就再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”。无论是乱世裂变间隙的魏晋风度，还是盛唐强音以及精致内敛的两宋文化，都迥然有别于春秋战国“百家争鸣”时期的文化。到了晚清时期，封建制度遭遇重大危机，从康梁维新运动到新文化运动，再到“五四运动”，思想界风云激荡，后世人们虽称之为“百家争鸣”，但并非实质意义上的春秋战国“百家争鸣”局面的重现。

Third, new culture often borrows certain elements and the outer garb of old culture, but in content it is a transcendence of old culture. The historian Lü Simian believed that “when a new culture replaces an old culture, this new culture must have already absorbed the strengths of the old culture; this is the truth of the dialectical method.” [12]12 Lü Simian (1884–1957) was a prominent Chinese historian. The quotation is from his work. The development from old culture to new culture is a thorough remolding of the old culture, a completion of the new culture’s transcendence of the old. The new culture that achieves transcendence needs to absorb the old culture, but it is not a reappearance of the old culture. In *The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte*, Marx on the one hand affirms that “men make their own history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past. The tradition of all dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brains of the living.” On the other hand, he holds that history has repeatedly seen scenes of later generations imitating their predecessors, but in many cases these end in a farcical, caricatured manner: “they anxiously conjure up the spirits of the past to their service and borrow from them names, battle slogans, and costumes in order to present the new scene of world history in this time-honored disguise and this borrowed language.” But Marx understood more clearly the essence of this scene: “the resurrection of the dead in those revolutions served the purpose of glorifying the new struggles, not of parodying the old; of magnifying the given task in imagination, not of fleeing from its solution in reality; of finding once more the spirit of revolution, not of making its ghost walk again.”

第三，新文化往往借用旧文化的某些元素和旧文化的外衣，但在内容上是对旧文化的超越。历史学家吕思勉认为，“以一种新文化，替代一种旧文化，此新文化，必已兼摄旧文化之长，此为辩证法的真理”。从旧文化发展到新文化，是旧文化的脱胎换骨，是新文化完成了对旧文化的超越。实现超越的新文化需要吸收旧文化，但不是旧文化的重现。马克思在《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》中一方面肯定“人们自己创造自己的历史，但是他们并不是随心所欲地创造，并不是在他们自己选定的条件下创造，而是在直接碰到的、既定的、从过去承继下来的条件下创造。一切已死的先辈们的传统，像梦魇一样纠缠着活人的头脑”；另一方面认为历史上多次出现后人模仿前人的场面，但许多情况下是以漫画般的笑剧方式结束的，“他们战战兢兢地请出亡灵来为自己效劳，借用它们的名字、战斗口号和衣服，以便穿着这种久受崇敬的服装，用这种借来的语言，演出世界历史的新的一幕”。但马克思更清楚这种场景的本质是“使死人复生是为了赞美新的斗争，而不是为了拙劣地模仿旧的斗争；是为了在想象中夸大某一任务，而不是为了回避在现实中解决这个任务；是为了再度找到革命的精神，而不是为了让革命的幽灵重行游荡”。

Transforming China’s old culture with Marxism enabled it to achieve a historical transcendence of the old culture in both content and form. On the eve of the victory of the War of Liberation, Mao Zedong wrote in “The Bankruptcy of the Idealist Conception of History”: “The great, victorious People’s Liberation War and people’s revolution has revived and is reviving the great culture of the Chinese people.” [13]13 “The Bankruptcy of the Idealist Conception of History” (1949) is one of Mao Zedong’s essays criticizing the idealist view of history held by the U.S.-backed Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang). He believed that the victory of the Chinese revolution would create favorable conditions for reviving “the great culture of the Chinese people,” but the culture referred to here as “has revived and is reviving” does not mean restoring intact all ancient culture, including the ideologies and concepts of the reactionary ruling classes. Rather, it means revitalizing the progressive “great culture of the Chinese people” that represents the direction of historical development—the fine traditional Chinese culture that has been transformed by Marxism, which enabled the Chinese people to move from a passive to an active state spiritually. This culture of the Chinese people, in terms of its spiritual aspect, not only transcends ancient traditional culture but also “has already surpassed the entire capitalist world.” Only this culture, transformed by Marxism, determined that “the era in which modern world history looked down upon the Chinese people and Chinese culture should come to an end.”

以马克思主义改造中国旧文化，使其在内容与形式上实现了对旧文化的历史性超越。解放战争即将胜利之时，毛泽东在《唯心历史观的破产》中写道，“伟大的胜利的中国人民解放战争和人民大革命，已经复兴了并正在复兴着伟大的中国人民的文化”。他认为中国革命的胜利将为复兴“伟大的中国人民的文化”创造良好的条件，但这里讲的“已经复兴了并正在复兴着”的文化，并不是原封不动地恢复包括反动统治阶级思想意识和观念的一切古代文化，而是振兴代表历史发展方向的进步的“伟大的中国人民的文化”，是经过使中国人在精神上由被动转入主动的马克思主义改造过的中华优秀传统文化。这种中国人民的文化，就其精神方面来说，不但超越了古代的传统文化，而且“已经超过了整个资本主义的世界”。只有这种用马克思主义改造过的文化，才决定了“近代世界历史上那种看不起中国人，看不起中国文化的时代应当完结了”。

Fourth, concerning genuine rather than illusory cultural progress. When Marx said that classical culture “can no longer be produced in its epoch-making, classical form,” he was not denying cultural progress; on the contrary, he was fully affirming it. In the *Introduction*, Marx pointed out that “the concept of progress must not be taken in the usual abstract sense.” [14]14 The *Introduction* refers to Marx’s “Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy” (1857), often called the *Grundrisse* introduction. The “abstract” sense of progress here refers to progress that does not contain the content of the times, that does not include the inevitable retrogression and detours of certain aspects. Actual cultural progress, however, precisely contains the content of the times and includes progress accompanied by certain retrogression and twists. Engels believed that “every kind of thing has its own special way of being negated, and through such negation it simultaneously achieves development.” Greek mythology declined, but modern society has given rise to science fiction novels and films; Greek epic poetry declined, but the novel and the *zhanghui* [15]15 *Zhanghui* (章回) is a traditional Chinese narrative form, typically used in novels, where the text is divided into numbered chapters (hui) with a couplet title summarizing each chapter’s content. romance, which belong to the same art of language and writing, have preserved elements of the epic and flourished on a broader and deeper scale. Marx was neither surprised nor regretful at the decline of Greek culture, which “can no longer be produced in its epoch-making, classical form.” Instead, he understood the decline of Greek art as its development toward a higher level, because progress is always realized through its own negation. Marx always examined historical issues from a historical standpoint, just as he wrote in “The British Rule in India”: “However painful the collapse of an ancient world may be to our personal feelings, from a historical perspective we have the right to sing with Goethe: ‘Should this torment then give us pain, / Since it brings us greater pleasure? / Were not through the rule of Timur / Countless souls subjected to measure?’” [16]16 The Goethe quotation is from his poem “An den Mond” (To the Moon), as cited by Marx. Timur (Tamerlane) was a 14th-century Turco-Mongol conqueror. Therefore, Marx’s view that certain classical cultures “can no longer be produced in their epoch-making, classical form” means that old cultures that fail to keep pace with the times inevitably exit the stage of history, while new cultures that march with the times are bound to be born.

第四，关于真实的而不是虚假的文化进步论。当马克思说古典文化“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”时，并不是否定文化的进步，相反却是充分肯定了文化的进步。马克思在《导言》中指出，“进步这个概念决不能在通常的抽象意义上去理解”，这里的“抽象”意义的进步，是指不包含时代内容的、不包含某种方面的不可避免的退步和弯路的进步，而实际发生的文化进步恰恰是包含时代内容的、包含某种退步和曲折的进步。恩格斯认为，“每一种事物都有它的特殊的否定方式，经过这样的否定，它同时就获得发展”。希腊神话衰落了，但现代社会出现了科幻小说和科幻电影；希腊史诗衰落了，但同属于语言文字艺术的长篇小说、章回传奇故事保留了史诗的元素，在更加宽广深远的范围和程度上兴盛了。马克思并不为“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”的希腊文化的衰亡而感到奇怪和遗憾，而是将希腊艺术的衰落，理解为希腊艺术向更高水平的发展，因为进步总是伴随着自身的否定而实现的。马克思总是站在历史的高度看待历史问题，正如他在《不列颠在印度的统治》中写道：“无论一个古老世界崩溃的情景对我们个人的感情来说是怎样难过，但是从历史观点来看，我们有权同歌德一起高唱：‘我们何必因这痛苦而伤心，既然它带给我们更多欢乐？难道不是有千千万万生灵，曾经被帖木儿的统治吞没？’”因此，马克思对某些古典文化“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”的观点，就是指没有跟上时代步伐的旧文化难免退出历史舞台，但与时代同行的新文化必然诞生。

II. Classical Artistic Models “Still Give Us Artistic Enjoyment” in the Present

二、古典艺术范本在当代“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”

Since classical culture and art “can no longer be produced in their epoch-making, classical form,” does this mean that classical culture and art are outdated and have lost their contemporary value? On this question, Marx believed that one cannot simply use the term “outdated” to describe classical culture whose former splendor is hard to reproduce. In the *Introduction*, Marx pointed out that classical art “still gives us artistic enjoyment and in a certain respect counts as a norm and an unattainable model.”

既然古典文化艺术“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”，那么是否意味着古典文化艺术过时而失去当代价值？针对这一问题，马克思认为不可简单地用“过时”来描述盛景难再现的古典文化。马克思在《导言》中指出，古典艺术“何以仍然能够给我们以艺术享受，而且就某方面说还是一种规范和高不可及的范本”。

Marx believed that the charm classical art holds for modern people “is not in contradiction to the undeveloped stage of society in which it grew. On the contrary, it is the product of this stage of society, and it is inseparable from the fact that the immature social conditions under which it arose, and could alone arise, can never return.” This statement reveals the inner mechanism by which classical culture “still gives us artistic enjoyment.” In an undeveloped stage of society, people could fully develop certain art forms in a manner unique to that era, creating splendid cultures. For example, after the formation of mature written characters, oracle bone script and cuneiform could no longer be produced. Only in the childhood of humanity, when productive forces were underdeveloped, did oracle bone script emerge, which could only appear in that era, thereby giving rise to the splendid oracle bone culture, which continues to exert a strong artistic appeal on contemporary people. China’s splendid ancient “clan emblem culture” was the product of people in that era abstracting natural objects into totems for worship. “The human face and fish patterns on painted pottery basins unearthed at Banpo may all be totems worshipped by certain clans,” [17]17 Banpo is a Neolithic archaeological site near Xi’an, China, associated with the Yangshao culture (c. 5000–3000 BCE). but contemporary society can no longer produce the clan emblem culture unique to ancient society.

马克思认为，古典艺术对现代人产生的魅力“同这种艺术在其中生长的那个不发达的社会阶段并不矛盾。这种艺术倒是这个社会阶段的结果，并且是同这种艺术在其中产生而且只能在其中产生的那些未成熟的社会条件永远不能复返这一点分不开的”。这句话揭示了古典文化“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”的内在机理。在不发达的社会阶段，人们完全能够以那个时代独有的方式片面地发展某种艺术形式，形成灿烂的文化。例如，在形成了成熟的文字后，就不可能产生甲骨文和楔形文字。只有在生产力不发达的人类童年期，才产生了只有在那个时代才能出现的甲骨文字，从而产生了灿烂的甲骨文化，并对当代人产生强烈的艺术感召力。中国古代灿烂的“族徽文化”是在那时人们崇拜自然物抽象成图腾的产物，“半坡出土的彩陶盆上有人面鱼纹，都有可能是某些氏族崇奉的图腾”，但当代社会已经不可能产生古代社会特有的族徽文化了。

Whether culture and art possess the power to move people depends crucially on whether that culture and art can reflect the essence of the times and touch the heartstrings of the appreciator, regardless of whether the culture and art are ancient or modern. Even if a modern work of culture and art fails to vividly and truthfully embody the essence of the times, reducing culture and art to a plaything for the artist’s amusement and diversion, it will be difficult for such a work to produce lasting artistic appeal among the masses. Conversely, even if an artist lived thousands of years ago, as long as they refined real life into art and fully reflected the essence and spiritual outlook of the times, their work will evoke spiritual resonance and artistic enjoyment in appreciators both ancient and modern. Appreciators may be shocked by the exquisite skill displayed in classical culture and art, or they may be drawn by classical culture and art into contemplation of the essence of the times. All works that reflect the true, the good, and the beautiful, all works that conform to the requirements of historical progress, occupy a lofty position in history and continuously radiate captivating charm. This is the reason Marx gave for why classical artistic models “still give us artistic enjoyment.”

文化艺术是否具有打动人的魅力，关键看此文化艺术是否能够反映时代的本质、触碰欣赏者的心弦，而不管这个文化艺术是古代的还是现代的。即便是现代的文化艺术作品，如果不能真实生动地体现时代的本质，而把文化艺术降低为艺术家消遣享乐的玩物，那么，此作品就很难在人民群众中产生持久的艺术感染力。相反，即便是生活在几千年前的艺术家，只要他提炼真实的生活成为艺术，充分反映时代的本质和精神风貌，他的作品就会给古今的欣赏者带来心灵共鸣和艺术享受。欣赏者可能因古典文化艺术表现出来的精湛技巧而震撼，也可能被古典文化艺术带入对时代本质的沉思。一切反映真善美的作品，一切符合历史进步要求的作品，都在历史上居于崇高的位置，持续地散发出迷人的魅力。这就是马克思说的古典艺术范本“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”的原因。

Classical culture and art “still give us artistic enjoyment” can occur in various situations.

古典文化艺术“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”，可以有多种情况。

First, classical culture and art relatively easily evoke feelings of nostalgia for antiquity in modern appreciators. Classical works of architecture, painting, and sculpture are living fossils of ancient civilizations, serving as a bridge connecting the production and life scenes of our ancestors with modern society. Classical cultural and artistic works are some solemn and majestic, some passionate and unrestrained, some winding and secluded, some grand and imposing, some subtle and restrained, some humorous and grotesque… yet all can stir people’s heartstrings. Confucius’s “The passage of time is like this, never ceasing day or night” [18]18 A quotation from the *Analects of Confucius* (Zihan chapter), expressing the fleeting nature of time. and Chen Ziang’s [19]19 Chen Ziang (661–702), a Tang dynasty poet. “Before me, unseen were the ancients; behind me, unseen those to come. Thinking of the eternity of heaven and earth, all alone I shed tears in sorrow” [20]20 From Chen Ziang’s poem *On the Tower at Youzhou*. express reflections on the flux of the cosmos and the vicissitudes of past and present, giving people a strong sense of the relationship between nature and humanity and eliciting a philosophical aesthetic experience. This is the charm of classical culture and art. The older the classical culture and art, the more they can stir people’s emotions of tracing back through history, and the more unique their charm.

第一，古典的文化艺术比较容易引发现代欣赏者思古怀旧的情感。古典建筑、绘画、雕塑等艺术作品，是古代文明的活化石，是连接先祖们生产和生活场景与现代社会的载体。古典文化艺术作品有的庄严肃穆，有的热情奔放，有的曲径通幽，有的大气磅礴，有的含蓄内敛，有的幽默怪诞……但都能拨动人们的心弦。孔子的“逝者如斯夫，不舍昼夜”以及陈子昂的“前不见古人，后不见来者。念天地之悠悠，独怆然而涕下”，感慨宇宙流转，俯仰古今变迁，让人强烈地感受到宇宙自然与人的关系，得到一种哲理性的美学感受，这就是古典文化艺术的魅力。年代越久远的古典文化艺术，越能够激起人们回溯历史的情绪，越具有独特的魅力。

Second, if classical culture and art express emotions common to humanity across time, they can provide artistic enjoyment to contemporary people. Artistic works created by ancient artists, such as Su Dongpo’s [21]21 Su Dongpo (1037–1101), also known as Su Shi, a major Song dynasty poet, writer, and painter. “The moon waxes and wanes, people meet and part,” [22]22 From Su Shi’s *Prelude to Water Melody*, written for the Mid-Autumn Festival. allow people, in the atmosphere of a bright moon hanging high and solitary vastness, to achieve a high degree of harmony between humanity and nature, and between humanity and society. Another example is the famous Hellenistic-style sculpture *Laocoön*, which, through the life-and-death struggle of Laocoön and his two sons entwined by serpents, expresses human feelings of fear, terror, and sympathy, striking directly into the depths of the viewer’s soul. Therefore, it holds indispensable significance in the study of Western art history and aesthetics. “From Michelangelo to the Baroque master Bernini, over two hundred years, countless artists observed, studied, and imitated it.” [23]23 A quotation from the art historian, source unspecified in the original. Humanity evolves through tenacious struggle; the great spirit of struggle and sacrifice embodied in classical artworks moves heaven and earth, transcends the limits of time and space, and will certainly reappear in the works of later generations.

第二，如果古典文化艺术反映了人类古今相通的情感，就能够给予当代人以艺术享受。古代艺术家创造的艺术作品，如苏东坡的“月有阴晴圆缺，人有悲欢离合”，让人在皓月当空、孤高旷远的氛围中，达到了人与自然、人与社会的高度契合。再如，具有古希腊风格的著名雕塑“拉奥孔”，通过拉奥孔和他的两个儿子被蟒蛇缠绕时的生死之搏，把人类的畏惧、恐怖和同情等感受表达出来，直击观赏者的灵魂深处。因此，在西方美术史学和美学研究中具有不可或缺的重要意义。“从米开朗琪罗到巴洛克大师贝尼尼，两百年间艺术家观摩学习仿效它的不计其数”。人类是在顽强奋斗中进化的，古典艺术作品体现的那种伟大奋斗献身精神，感天动地，超越时空限制，一定会在后世的作品里再现出来。

Third, classical culture and art that express the beauty of nature, present in both ancient and modern times, can bring lasting artistic enjoyment to contemporary people. Such outstanding classical music, painting, and literature always provide people with aesthetic experiences such as joy, passion, tranquility, sorrow, vicissitude, and visual pleasure. Engels mentioned the joy brought by natural beauty: “The ancient Greek poets of Sicily, Theocritus and Moschus, once celebrated the idyllic life of their contemporaries, the slave-herdsmen; there is no doubt that this was a beautiful, poetic fantasy.” [24]24 A reference to Engels’s discussion of ancient Greek pastoral poetry in *The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State* or related writings. When people silently recite verses such as “A lone wild duck flies with the sunset clouds; the autumn river is one with the vast sky,” [25]25 From Wang Bo’s (Tang dynasty) *Preface to the Pavilion of Prince Teng*. “On either side of the river green mountains stand; a single sail comes from the sun’s side,” [26]26 From Li Bai’s (Tang dynasty) *Sitting Alone Facing Mount Jingting*. and “The apricot blossom rain wets my clothes, the willow wind blows not cold on my face,” [27]27 From Zhinan’s (Song dynasty) *In the South of the River*. they too can transcend the limits of time and space, feel the wonder of nature, and experience joy.

第三，表现古今皆有的大自然之美的古典文化艺术，能够为当代人带来持久的艺术享受。此种杰出的古典音乐、绘画、古典文学，总是使人获得欢愉、激情、安宁、悲凉、沧桑以及赏心悦目等美学体验。恩格斯提到自然美给人带来的欢愉，“西西里岛的古希腊诗人忒俄克里托斯和莫斯库斯曾经歌颂了他们的同时代人——牧奴的田园诗式的生活；毫无疑问，这是美丽的、富有诗意的幻想”。当人们默诵“落霞与孤鹜齐飞，秋水共长天一色”“两岸青山相对出，孤帆一片日边来”“沾衣欲湿杏花雨，吹面不寒杨柳风”等诗文时，也会超越时空限制感受到自然之美妙而心情愉悦。

Fourth, classical culture and art that express the spirit of freedom and liberation yearned for by humanity in both ancient and modern times, and that castigate the false, the ugly, and the evil while promoting the true, the good, and the beautiful, “still give us artistic enjoyment.” [28]28 A reference to Marx’s discussion of Greek art in the *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy* (the *Grundrisse*). Marx pointed out that the historical stage of humanity’s free and comprehensive development has not yet been realized, and the pursuit of freedom and liberation is constrained by the triple bonds of nature, society, and the human psyche. The nude sculptures of ancient Greece perfectly matched the social trend of the Renaissance to break free from the ideological shackles of the Middle Ages and pursue ideological liberation, exerting a tremendous artistic attraction on humanists. The pastoral poet Tao Yuanming [29]29 Tao Yuanming (365–427), also known as Tao Qian, a Jin dynasty poet famous for his pastoral poetry., who despised fame and fortune, refused to bow for five bushels of rice [30]30 An allusion to Tao Yuanming’s refusal to compromise his principles for a minor official’s salary., and pursued the perfection of inner character, expressed in his *Peach Blossom Spring* [31]31 A famous prose piece by Tao Yuanming describing a utopian community hidden from the world. the ideal of pursuing a life of freedom and tranquility and his dissatisfaction with real life, possessing lasting artistic charm. Whether it is the Seventh Fairy Maiden in the myth of the Cowherd and the Weaver Girl, who broke the heavenly decrees to pursue happiness in the human world, or the White Snake, who fought the Law Flooding Jinshan Temple [32]32 A scene from the legend of the White Snake, where she uses her magic to flood the Jinshan Temple in a fight with the monk Fahai. and was crushed under Leifeng Pagoda; whether it is Dou E, who moved heaven and earth with her vow of “June snow” [33]33 The heroine of Guan Hanqing’s Yuan dynasty play *The Injustice to Dou E*, who calls down supernatural signs to prove her innocence., or Lin Daiyu, who, living under others’ roofs, sorrowfully buried flowers [34]34 A character from Cao Xueqin’s Qing dynasty novel *Dream of the Red Chamber*, known for her sensitivity and poetic nature. — all embody the strong desire of the masses to resist feudal oppression and pursue a life of freedom and happiness. This coincides with the contemporary human aspiration for free, happy, and comprehensive development and still holds contemporary value.

第四，表达古今人类皆向往的自由解放精神以及鞭挞假丑恶、弘扬真善美的古典文化艺术“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”。马克思指出人类自由全面发展的历史阶段尚未实现，追求自由解放会受到自然、社会和心灵的三重束缚。古希腊的裸体雕塑，正好符合文艺复兴时期摆脱中世纪思想束缚、追求思想解放的社会思潮的要求，对人本主义者具有巨大的艺术吸引力。田园诗人陶渊明，蔑视功名利禄，不为五斗米折腰，追求内在人格的完美，其《桃花源记》表现了作者追求自由安宁生活的理想和对现实生活的不满，具有持久的艺术魅力。无论是牛郎织女神话里的摆脱天庭戒律到人间追求幸福的七仙女，还是大战法海水漫金山被压在雷峰塔下的白娘子；无论是感天动地发下“六月飞雪”宏愿的窦娥，还是寄人篱下悲切葬花的林黛玉，均寄托了人民群众反抗封建压迫、追求自由幸福生活的强烈愿望，与当代人类追求自由幸福全面发展的愿望相吻合，仍然具有当代价值。

Marx believed that classical culture “still gives us artistic enjoyment,” an artistic enjoyment that has not departed from the level of its own time. The *Introduction* [35]35 Refers to the *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy* (1857), part of the *Grundrisse* manuscripts. states: “Does not the naivety of the child give pleasure to the adult? Should he not himself strive to reproduce the child’s truth on a higher level? Does not the inherent character of each epoch come alive again in the nature of the child, in its naivety? Why should the childhood of human history, where it has unfolded most perfectly, not exert an eternal charm as a stage that will never return?” [36]36 A paraphrase of Marx’s argument in the *Introduction* about the enduring charm of Greek art. Marx expresses several meanings here: First, just as the naivety of a child gives pleasure to an adult, ancient culture and art from thousands of years ago still hold charm for contemporary people and bring them joy. Second, the naivety of the child that pleases the adult is a pure authenticity that has not yet experienced the warmth and coldness of the human world. Only through the trials of the vicissitudes of the times can a child mature and achieve sound mind and body. Classical culture cannot remain only at the “childhood stage” of bringing joy to adults through its frankness and innocence; just as a child must grow up, it must continue to shine brilliantly on a higher and newer stage. Third, contemporary humanity can appreciate the charm of the excellent traditional culture produced in that underdeveloped historical stage, but humanity cannot return in time to the childhood of that underdeveloped human society. The charm of traditional culture is linked to the social conditions of its immaturity that produced it and can never be replicated.

马克思认为古典文化“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”，是一种没有脱离时代水准的艺术享受。《导言》指出：“儿童的天真不使成人感到愉快吗？他自己不该努力在一个更高的阶梯上把儿童的真实再现出来吗？在每一个时代，它固有的性格不是以其纯真性又活跃在儿童的天性中吗？为什么历史上的人类童年时代，在它发展得最完美的地方，不该作为永不复返的阶段而显示出永久的魅力呢？”马克思在这里表达了几层含义：一是如同儿童的天真使成人感到愉快一样，数千年前的古代文化艺术照样对当代人具有魅力，为当代人带来愉悦。二是使成人感到愉快的儿童的天真，是尚未阅尽人间冷暖甘苦的纯洁的本真。只有历经时代风霜的考验，儿童才能走向成熟，走向心智健全。古典文化不能仅停留在靠率真童真带给成人欢愉的“童年阶段”，如同儿童总要长大一样，而是要在更高更新的舞台上继续大放异彩。三是当代人类可以感受那个不发达的历史阶段产生的优秀传统文化的魅力，但人类不可能在时间上回到那个不发达的人类社会的童年期。传统文化具有的魅力，是与永远不能复返产生它的那些未成熟的社会条件相联系的魅力。

While putting forward the view that classical culture and art “still give us artistic enjoyment,” Marx also proposed another characteristic of classical culture and art: “in a certain respect, they still constitute a norm and an unattainable model.” [37]37 Another key phrase from Marx’s *Introduction* regarding Greek art. This is consistent with the artistic characteristics of classical Chinese poetry. Classical Chinese poetry, in its pursuit of elegance, strives for perfection under strict norms, pushing the beauty of the national language to its peak, forming a stable aesthetic style and prosodic paradigm. The neatly rhymed verse, the ornate parallel prose, the singable and chantable *yuefu* [38]38 A form of Chinese poetry and song, popular from the Han dynasty onward. — all developed to a level that most people could only look up to in awe. However, such meticulously crafted “unattainable” diction and prosody actually limited the dissemination and further development of classical culture. During the great transformation of the past millennium in modern times, the elegant external form of classical poetry lost its vitality, making it difficult to vividly and broadly convey the voice of the times to the masses. Contemporary Chinese people must study and inherit the excellent traditional Chinese culture of Tang and Song poetry and Yuan *qu* [39]39 A form of Chinese poetry and drama that flourished in the Yuan dynasty., but the vitality of classical art lies in the process of continuous innovation in response to the demands of the times. From the late 19th century, when the pioneer of modern Chinese poetry Huang Zunxian advocated for the colloquialization of poetry, to Liang Qichao’s call for a “poetry revolution” [40]40 A late 19th-century literary reform movement led by Liang Qichao and others, advocating for the modernization of poetry. to push classical culture towards the social masses, transforming it from literati literature to popular literature — if the obstacle of classical Chinese to the masses’ acceptance of new ideas was not overcome, “democracy” and “science” could not take root in China. The leading figures of the New Culture Movement [41]41 An intellectual and cultural movement in the 1910s–1920s that promoted vernacular Chinese, science, and democracy. actively promoted vernacular Chinese in response to the needs of the times, and a batch of vernacular novels and new poetry emerged. During the Yan’an period, Mao Zedong called for “writing must be reformed under certain conditions, and language must be close to the masses; it must be understood that the masses are the inexhaustible source of revolutionary culture,” [42]42 From Mao Zedong’s *Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art* (1942). which promoted the standardization of writing and allowed the “unattainable” classical culture to “fly into the homes of ordinary people,” [43]43 A phrase from a poem by Liu Yuxi (Tang dynasty), later used idiomatically to mean making high culture accessible to common people. forming a national, scientific, and mass culture with the broad working masses as the aesthetic subject, object of representation, and readership, adopting forms they loved and enjoyed.

在提出古典文化艺术“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”观点的同时，马克思还提出了古典文化艺术的另一个特点“就某方面说还是一种规范和高不可及的范本”，这是符合中国古典诗词的艺术特点。中国古典诗词为追求典雅而在严格规范下精益求精，将民族语言之美推到顶峰，形成稳定的美学风格和格律范式。词句整齐的韵文，用字务求华美的骈文，可歌可诵的乐府，发展到令大多数人仅能仰视瞻望的地步。但是，如此讲究的“高不可及”的辞章格律，反而限制了古典文化的传播和进一步发展。近代以来千年大变局之际，古典诗词古典高雅的形式外衣失去活力，难以在宽广的社会范围内鲜活生动地向人民大众传播时代声音。当代中国人要学习、继承唐诗宋词元曲等中华优秀传统文化，可古典艺术的生命力却存在于顺应时代要求不断创新的过程中。从19世纪末中国现代诗歌先驱黄遵宪提倡诗歌口语化，到梁启超呼吁“诗界革命”推动古典文化面向社会大众，由士大夫文学转变为平民文学。如果不摆脱文言文对民众接受新思想的阻碍，“民主”“科学”就无法扎根中国。新文化运动的主将们顺应时代的需要，积极推广白话文，一批白话文小说和新诗问世。延安时期的毛泽东号召“文字必须在一定条件下加以改革，言语必须接近民众，须知民众就是革命文化的无限丰富的源泉”，推动了文字规范和让高不可及的古典文化“飞入寻常百姓家”，形成以广大劳动者为审美主体、表现对象和阅读对象，采用他们喜闻乐见的形式，形成民族的科学的大众的文化。

III. The Development of Culture and Art “Is Combined with a Certain Form of Social Development”

三、文化艺术的发展“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”

Regarding the relationship between culture and art and the times, the *Introduction*, based on the historical facts of ancient Greek art, puts forward a viewpoint: “Greek art and epic are combined with a certain form of social development.” [44]44 A direct quotation from Marx’s *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy*. This is a manifestation of Marx’s consistent adherence to historical materialism in the field of culture and art.

关于文化艺术与时代的关系，在《导言》中基于古希腊艺术的史实提出一个观点：“希腊艺术和史诗同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”。这是马克思在文化艺术领域一贯秉承唯物史观的体现。

The core of historical materialism is summarized by Engels as: “On the basis of a full knowledge of the economic situation of that stage of society (which our professional historians of course completely lack), all historical phenomena can be explained in the simplest way, and likewise the ideas and thoughts of each historical period can be explained very simply by the economic conditions of life of that period and by the social and political relations determined by these conditions.” [45]45 Engels, “Letter to Joseph Bloch,” September 21[-22], 1890. Feudal society inevitably produces feudal culture, and capitalist society inevitably produces capitalist culture. This is summarized by Mao Zedong as: “A given culture is the ideological reflection of the politics and economics of a given society.” [46]46 Mao Zedong, “On New Democracy” (1940). This shows that the development of culture and art, because it is “combined with a given form of social development,” is inevitably and profoundly stamped with the brand of the times.

唯物史观的核心被恩格斯概括为“在充分认识了该阶段社会经济状况（而我们那些专业历史编纂学家当然完全没有这种认识）的条件下，一切历史现象都可以用最简单的方法来说明，同样，每一历史时期的观念和思想也可以极其简单地由这一时期的经济的生活条件以及由这些条件决定的社会关系和政治关系来说明”。封建社会必然产生封建文化，资本主义社会必然产生资本主义文化，这被毛泽东总结为“一定的文化是一定社会的政治和经济在观念形态上的反映”。这就表明，文化艺术的发展由于“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”，必然被深刻地打上时代的烙印。

First, culture being “combined with a given form of social development” means that a specific culture is the product of a specific era. When people talk about culture, they usually refer to culture that is “combined with a given form of social development,” not culture that is detached from the form of social development. In the *Introduction*, Marx argues that the production of Greek culture had its own specific form of social development: “Greek art presupposes Greek mythology.” [47]47 Karl Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy* (1857). The form of social development that produced Egyptian mythology differs from that which produced Greek mythology, so “Egyptian mythology could never be the soil or womb of Greek art.” Marx and Engels also analyzed the close relationship between the artistic works of different artists and the form of social development of their respective eras: “Raphael’s works of art are to a great extent related to the prosperity of Rome, which was formed under the influence of Florence at that time; Leonardo’s works are deeply influenced by the environment of Florence; Titian’s works are influenced by the completely different development of Venice.” [48]48 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, *The German Ideology* (1845-1846). Even the most innovative artists find it difficult to escape the constraints imposed by the form of social development of their specific era.

第一，文化“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”，意味着特定的文化是特定时代的产物。人们谈论文化，往往指的是“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”的文化，而不是脱离社会发展形式的文化。马克思在《导言》中认为希腊文化的产生有着自己特定的社会发展形式，“希腊艺术的前提是希腊神话”，产生埃及神话与希腊神话的社会发展形式不同，所以“埃及神话决不能成为希腊艺术的土壤或母胎”。马克思恩格斯还分析了不同的艺术家的艺术作品与他们所处时代的社会发展形式的密切关系，“拉斐尔的艺术作品在很大程度上同当时在佛罗伦萨影响下形成的罗马繁荣有关，而列奥纳多的作品则受到佛罗伦萨的环境的影响很深，提戚安诺的作品则受到全然不同的威尼斯的发展情况的影响很深”，即便是最富有创新力的艺术家，也很难摆脱特定时代的社会发展形式对他们的限制。

The political, economic, and cultural conditions of a given era, along with its social and political relations, determine the nature, style, content, and changes of the cultural thought of that era. During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, China witnessed the remarkably prosperous and splendid cultural situation of the “Hundred Schools of Thought,” which was the product of a specific era. China was then in a period of major transformation of its social system, with social turmoil, numerous feudal lords, and no authoritative ideological system capable of unifying the world of thought. Knowledge was no longer monopolized by a small number of aristocrats; private schools flourished in society, and numerous intellectuals emerged from the middle and lower strata of the common people. From among them arose a group of ambitious individuals, and the practice of traveling to lobby rulers became prevalent. The ideological representatives of various classes expressed their views on the future social system, aiming to guide society in a direction favorable to their own class. The feudal lords and high officials of the Spring and Autumn period competed to recruit talented people, and the atmosphere for academic discussion was quite relaxed. These conditions created the cultural wonder of the “Hundred Schools of Thought.” However, after Qin unified the country, the feudal relations of production were gradually established and perfected. To consolidate and develop feudal relations of production, the feudal rulers inevitably had to control people’s thinking. By the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu responded to the imperial edict by submitting a memorial, vigorously advocating the “Three Policies on Heaven and Man” and “Banish the Hundred Schools, Revere Only Confucianism.” [49]49 Dong Zhongshu (c. 179–104 BCE) was a Han dynasty Confucian scholar who successfully persuaded Emperor Wu to adopt Confucianism as the state ideology, suppressing other schools of thought. The “Three Policies on Heaven and Man” were his memorials outlining this proposal. The ruling class, committed to consolidating the feudal system, regarded the “Hundred Schools of Thought” as a factor threatening the stability of political power.

某一时代的政治经济文化条件以及社会关系和政治关系，决定这个时代文化思想的性质、样式、内容和变迁。春秋战国时期，我国出现了相当繁盛辉煌的“百家争鸣”文化局面，这是特定时代的产物。中国当时处于社会制度重大变革时期，社会动荡不安，诸侯林立，尚没有一个权威的思想体系能够统一思想界。知识不再被少数贵族所垄断，社会上盛行开办私学，中下层平民中出现了众多知识分子，并从中产生了一批胸怀大志之士，游说之风盛行。各阶级的思想代表对未来社会制度发表看法，以引领社会向有利于本阶级的方向发展。春秋时代的诸侯大夫们竞相招贤纳士，学术讨论的气氛相当宽松。这些条件造就了“百家争鸣”的文化奇观。但秦统一国家后，封建主义生产关系逐步确立和完善，封建统治者为了巩固和发展封建生产关系，必然要钳制人们的思想。到了汉代，董仲舒应诏上书，力陈“天人三策”“罢黜百家，独尊儒术”。致力于巩固封建制度的统治阶级，将“百家争鸣”当作威胁政权稳定的因素。

Second, culture being “combined with a given form of social development” means that culture must be endowed with new contemporary connotations as society progresses. Marx asked: “Can Achilles coexist with gunpowder and lead shot? Or can the *Iliad* coexist with the printing press, or even the printing machine?” [50]50 Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy*. Marx is not saying here that Greek art and epic poetry will lose their value. In fact, cultures known as “classics,” including Greek art, possess enduring aesthetic value and charm. However, we can discern from this Marx’s view that culture and art are “combined with a given form of social development.” Engels pointed out: “The theoretical thought of each era, including the theoretical thought of our own era, is a historical product. In different eras, it takes completely different forms and, at the same time, has completely different content.” [51]51 Frederick Engels, *Dialectics of Nature* (1873-1883). For example, the concept of “the people” (min) in ancient intellectual history has been endowed with new contemporary connotations as society progresses. The connotation of “the people” in the ancient saying “the people are the foundation of the state” must not be simply equated with the connotation of “the people” in the fundamental purpose of the Communist Party of China—serving the people. Mao Zedong profoundly pointed out that “the ‘love for the people’ of the exploiting classes is not much different from loving an ox.” [52]52 Mao Zedong, “Talks at the Yan’an Forum on Literature and Art” (1942). No matter how brilliant the views of “valuing the people” or “showing compassion for the people” put forward by outstanding thinkers and statesmen within the ruling class camp, they always placed the masses of the people in a position of being bestowed favors and pitied. The Communist Party of China has achieved a thorough transcendence of the ancient connotation of “the people,” treating the “people,” who were once regarded as servants, as the masters and creators of history.

第二，文化“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”，意味着文化要随着社会进步而被赋予新的时代内涵。马克思问道：“阿基里斯能够同火药和铅弹并存吗？或者，《伊利亚特》能够同活字盘甚至印刷机并存吗？”马克思在这里并不是说希腊艺术和史诗将要失去价值，事实上，包括希腊艺术在内的被称为“古典”的文化均具有长久的美学价值和魅力，但是我们可以从中体会出马克思关于文化艺术“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”的观点。恩格斯指出：“每一个时代的理论思维，包括我们这个时代的理论思维，都是一种历史的产物，它在不同的时代具有完全不同的形式，同时具有完全不同的内容。”比如，古代思想史上“民”的概念，随着社会进步而被赋予新的时代内涵。切不可把古代名言“民为邦本”中的“民”之内涵，简单地等同于中国共产党的根本宗旨——为人民服务中的“民”之内涵。毛泽东深刻地指出“剥削阶级的‘爱民’同爱牛差不多”。无论统治阶级阵营里的优秀思想家和政治家提出了多么闪光的“重民”“恤民”的观点，他们始终置人民群众于被恩赐和被怜悯地位，而中国共产党实现了对古代“民”之内涵的彻底超越，把过去被视为奴仆的“民”当作历史的主人和创造者。

Third, culture being “combined with a given form of social development” means that cultural phenomena and theoretical propositions, both ancient and modern, Chinese and foreign, emerge in an orderly manner according to the requirements of the development of the times, rather than appearing chaotically. Every ideological concept has its specific era of emergence: “The real content of all epoch-making systems is always formed by the needs of the period that produced them.” [53]53 Marx and Engels, *The German Ideology*. When criticizing Proudhon’s idealist conception, Marx pointed out that if one examines “what people were like in the 11th century, what they were like in the 18th century, what their respective needs, their productive forces, their mode of production, and the raw materials used in production were; finally, what the relationships between people arising from all these conditions of existence were,” one will find that “every principle has its own century in which it appeared. For example, the principle of authority appeared in the 11th century, and the principle of individualism appeared in the 18th century.” [54]54 Karl Marx, *The Poverty of Philosophy* (1847). This is not accidental. As Marx pointed out in the *Introduction*: “It is only in the 18th century, in ‘civil society,’ that the various forms of social connection appear to the individual as merely a means to achieve his private ends, as an external necessity.” [55]55 Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy*. Not only is the proposition of individualism a product of socio-economic and political conditions, but any cultural phenomenon or theoretical proposition that has emerged in human history is also determined by the economic conditions of life of a specific era and the social and political relations determined by these conditions.

第三，文化“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”，意味着古今中外产生的文化现象和理论命题，是根据时代发展的要求有序地出现的，而不是杂乱无章地出现的。每个思想观念都有其出现的特定时代，“一切划时代的体系的真正的内容都是由于产生这些体系的那个时期的需要而形成起来的”。马克思在批判蒲鲁东的唯心观念论时指出，“11世纪的人们是怎样的，18世纪的人们是怎样的，他们各自的需要、他们的生产力、生产方式以及生产中使用的原料是怎样的；最后，由这一切生存条件所产生的人与人之间的关系是怎样的”，就会发现“每个原理都有其出现的世纪。例如，权威原理出现在11世纪，个人主义原理出现在18世纪”。这不是偶然的，正如马克思在《导言》中指出的：“只有到18世纪，在‘市民社会’中，社会联系的各种形式，对个人说来，才表现为只是达到他私人目的的手段，才表现为外在的必然性。”不仅个人主义命题是社会经济政治条件的产物，而且人类历史上产生的任何文化现象和理论命题，也是由特定时代的经济生活条件以及由这些条件决定的社会关系和政治关系所决定的。

IV. The Uneven Relationship between Material Production and the Development of Culture and Art

四、物质生产与文化艺术发展存在不平衡关系

Marxism is not mechanical materialism; it does not hold that material production mechanically determines the content and form of culture. In the *Introduction*, Marx puts forward the proposition of “the uneven relationship between the development of material production, for example, and the development of art,” and explains it concretely: “As for art, it is well known that its certain periods of flourishing are by no means in proportion to the general development of society, nor, consequently, to the material foundation, the skeleton as it were, of its organization.” [56]56 Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy*. The proposition concerning the uneven relationship between the development of material production, for example, and the development of art can be understood from the following aspects.

马克思主义不是机械唯物主义，并不认为物质生产机械地决定着文化的内容和形式。在《导言》中，马克思提出“物质生产的发展例如同艺术发展的不平衡关系”命题，并具体地阐释道：“关于艺术，大家知道，它的一定的繁盛时期决不是同社会的一般发展成比例的，因而也决不是同仿佛是社会组织的骨骼的物质基础的一般发展成比例的”。关于物质生产的发展，例如同艺术发展的不平衡关系的命题可以从以下几个方面理解。

First, an era in which material production is not developed can nonetheless create culture of great significance. Generally speaking, the flourishing of material production often brings about the flourishing of culture, and culture must advance with the improvement of the political and economic conditions of the times. However, Marx further believed that in every historical period, whether in developed or underdeveloped stages, humanity is capable of creating the highest culture that that era can achieve. Marx wrote in the *Introduction*: “In the case of the arts, it is well known that certain periods of their flowering are out of all proportion to the general development of society, hence also to the material foundation, the skeletal structure as it were, of its organization.” [57]57 Karl Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy* (1857), often referred to as the *Grundrisse* Introduction. This assertion is confirmed by the history of Greek art. Ancient Greece was in an underdeveloped stage of human society, yet this did not preclude certain art forms, such as painting, sculpture, myth, and epic poetry, from achieving quite full development. The people of ancient times did not understand the nature of sound, light, and electricity in the natural world, which could only be revealed by modern physics, let alone electromagnetism, quantum theory, or relativity. Yet their sense of awe toward the unfathomable mysterious forces of the external world surpassed that of modern people. Combining their own life practice and their understanding of the external world, ancient artists, drawing on the collective consciousness of the ancients’ intense reverence for and fear of the gods, created a romantic, artistically charming, awe-inspiring, and fascinating mythological world and captivating epic stories. Compared with capitalist society, slave society had the characteristic of concentrating large numbers of slaves to massively construct grand palaces, theaters, statues, and other enormous projects. As Engels stated, “It was only slavery that made possible the division of labor between agriculture and industry on a larger scale, and thus the flowering of the ancient world, the flowering of Greek culture. Without slavery, there would have been no Greek state, no Greek art and science.” [58]58 Friedrich Engels, *Anti-Dühring* (1878). During the Yan’an period, [59]59 Yan’an period (1935–1948): The era when the Chinese Communist Party was based in Yan’an, Shaanxi Province, after the Long March, during which it consolidated its ideology and cultural policies. the material conditions of the Chinese Communist Party were very harsh, yet the vast number of workers on the cultural front, full of enthusiasm, created a large number of excellent works beloved by the masses, such as *Yellow River Cantata*, *The White-Haired Girl*, and *March of the Volunteers*, which are still renowned at home and abroad.

第一，物质生产并不发达的时代，照样可以创造出具有重大意义的文化。一般而言，物质生产的繁荣往往带来文化的繁荣，文化要随着时代的政治经济条件的改善而进步，但马克思进一步认为，每个历史时期，无论发达阶段还是不发达阶段，人类都能够创造出那个时代所能够实现的顶级文化。马克思在《导言》中写道：“在艺术本身的领域内，某些有重大意义的艺术形式只有在艺术发展的不发达阶段上才是可能的。”这一说法在希腊艺术史中得到证实。古希腊处于人类社会的不发达阶段，但不排除某些艺术形式如绘画、雕塑、神话和史诗等，获得相当充分的发展。远古时代的人类并不了解近现代物理学才能揭示的自然界声光电现象的本质，更不懂得电磁学、量子学、相对论，但他们对外部世界不可捉摸的神秘力量的敬畏感超过了现代人。古代艺术家结合自己的生活实践和对外界的认知，以古人对神灵的强烈敬仰、恐惧的集体意识为素材，创造出浪漫的富有艺术魅力的令人生畏令人神往的神话世界和引人入胜的史诗故事。与资本主义社会相比，奴隶制社会具有集中大量奴隶大规模地建筑宏大的王宫、剧院、塑像等巨大工程的特点。诚如恩格斯所言，“只有奴隶制才使农业和工业之间的更大规模的分工成为可能，从而使古代世界的繁荣，使希腊文化成为可能。没有奴隶制，就没有希腊国家，就没有希腊的艺术和科学”。中国共产党在延安时期，物质条件十分艰苦，但是广大文化战线上的工作者，热情洋溢，创造出《黄河大合唱》《白毛女》《义勇军进行曲》等一大批群众喜闻乐见的优秀作品，至今享誉海内外。

Second, culture and art are a reflection of social existence; excellent culture and art reflect the essence of the times, but the individual talent, interests, and preferences of cultural creators influence the production of cultural products. Culture and art are a reflection of the actual material relations of production, and also the “free intellectual production of a particular social formation” by the artist. [60]60 Karl Marx, *Theories of Surplus Value* (1862–1863). Although material production was underdeveloped in ancient Greece and in China’s Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties, [61]61 Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties: The earliest three dynasties in traditional Chinese historiography, spanning roughly from the 21st century BCE to the 3rd century BCE. as long as basic living and working conditions were available, highly skilled craftsmen and artists could still unleash extraordinary imagination and expressive techniques, creating outstanding cultural and artistic works. This is because artistic creation, in addition to having the attribute of being combined with a certain form of social development, also possesses individual characteristics closely related to the creator’s personal talent, interests, and preferences. The progress of material production drives the continuous renewal and enrichment of the materials and types of musical instruments. However, whether to compose and perform uplifting and optimistic tunes or angry and depressed tunes, whether to express personal ethereal emotions or the suffering of the people, the composer and performer themselves have the most say. In an era of flourishing material production, artistic masterpieces may appear in large numbers like bamboo shoots after a spring rain. But in times of war and chaos, when life is hard and circumstances are miserable, a highly innovative cultural giant may instead have a greater opportunity to experience the hardships of existence, be more motivated to create through indignation, and produce works that “lament the many hardships of the people,” [62]62 Quotation from the poem *Li Sao* (Encountering Sorrow) by Qu Yuan (c. 340–278 BCE), a poet of the Chu state. generating popular cultural and artistic works. “When King Wen was imprisoned, he elaborated the *Zhouyi*; when Confucius was in distress, he wrote the *Spring and Autumn Annals*; when Qu Yuan was exiled, he composed *Li Sao*” [63]63 A classical Chinese saying from Sima Qian’s *Records of the Grand Historian* (c. 94 BCE), listing examples of great works produced under adversity. — these were all works produced by sages and worthies when they were in difficult circumstances.

第二，文化艺术是社会存在的反映，优秀的文化艺术反映着时代的本质，但文化创作者的个人天赋、意趣、喜好影响着文化产品的生产。文化艺术是现实物质生产关系的反映，也是艺术家在“一定社会形态的自由的精神生产”。尽管古希腊和中国夏商周时期，物质生产不发达，但只要具备基本生活和工作条件，身怀绝技的工匠和艺术家依然可以焕发出过人的想象力和表现技巧，创造出杰出的文化艺术作品。这是因为艺术创造除了具有同一定社会发展形式结合的属性外，还具有与创作者的个人天赋、意趣、喜好密切相关的个体性特点。物质生产的进步，带动乐器的材质和种类不断更新和丰富，但是要谱写和演奏昂扬乐观的曲子还是悲愤抑郁的曲子，是表现个人虚无缥缈的情绪还是表现人民的疾苦，最有发言权的是作曲家和演奏家本人。在物质生产繁荣的时代，艺术杰作也许能够如雨后春笋般地大量出现，但在兵荒马乱的年代，在生活艰辛、境遇悲惨之时，一个富有创新力的文化巨匠，反而更有机会体验生存艰难，更能发愤创作，创造出“哀民生之多艰”的作品，产生脍炙人口的文化艺术作品。文王拘而演《周易》，仲尼厄而作《春秋》，屈原放逐乃赋《离骚》，都是圣贤处境艰难时的发愤之作。

Third, social consciousness has relative independence; the many factors within ideology and culture interact with each other, and economically backward countries can also create advanced culture. Marx believed that the various internal elements of culture interact with each other and are not solely constrained by material production. In the *Introduction*, he proposed that “Greek mythology is not only the arsenal of Greek art, but also its soil.” [64]64 Karl Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy* (1857). The view that internal elements of ideology and culture can interact with each other was inherited and profoundly elaborated by Engels in his later years. Engels in his later years believed that the development of philosophy depends not only on the economic development of society but is also influenced by the politics, law, and morality of a specific period. As long as the conditions for the accumulation of intellectual materials and the political and legal environment are favorable for the development of philosophy, “economically backward countries can still play first violin in philosophy.” [65]65 Friedrich Engels, letter to Conrad Schmidt, 27 October 1890. The history of modern Western thought and culture confirms Marx’s principle of the uneven relationship between material production and cultural development. In the mid-to-late eighteenth century, Britain completed the Industrial Revolution, and capitalist productive forces developed rapidly. However, France, which was economically far behind Britain, produced cultural giants such as Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot. Germany, whose level of productive forces lagged far behind Britain and France, experienced a philosophical revolution starting with Kant, passing through Hegel, and ending with Feuerbach; in literature and art, it produced masters such as Goethe, Heine, and Schiller, forming a peculiar situation where “this era was shameful in political and social terms, but great in terms of German literature,” [66]66 Friedrich Engels, *Dialectics of Nature* (1883), referring to late 18th- and early 19th-century Germany. not to mention the birth of the “thinker of the millennium,” Marx, and his comrade Engels. It is worth noting that the view that economically backward countries can create advanced culture should not be absolutized. When elaborating the principle of the relative independence of social consciousness, Engels pointed out, “In both France and Germany, philosophy and the general flourishing of scholarship in that era were also the result of economic upsurge. The ultimate supremacy of economic development over these spheres is, in my view, certain.” [67]67 Friedrich Engels, letter to Conrad Schmidt, 27 October 1890.

第三，社会意识具有相对独立性，思想文化内部的诸多因素相互作用，经济落后的国家也可以创造出先进的文化。马克思认为，文化内部诸要素间相互发生作用，不仅仅受到物质生产的制约。他在《导言》中提出，“希腊神话不只是希腊艺术的武库，而且是它的土壤”。思想文化内部的要素可以相互发生作用的观点，在晚年恩格斯那里得到继承和深刻阐释。晚年恩格斯认为，哲学的发展不但取决于社会经济的发展，而且受到特定时期的政治、法律和道德的影响。只要在思想材料积累、政治法律环境上具有了有利于哲学发展的条件，“经济上落后的国家在哲学上仍然能够演奏第一小提琴”。近现代西方思想文化史证实了马克思关于物质生产与文化发展的不平衡关系原理。十八世纪中后期，英国完成了工业革命，资本主义生产力迅猛发展，但经济上远落后于英国的法国，却出现了孟德斯鸠、伏尔泰、卢梭、狄德罗等文化巨匠。生产力水平远落后于英法的德国，却在哲学方面发生了从康德开始，中间经过黑格尔，最后到费尔巴哈的哲学革命；在文学艺术方面出现了歌德、海涅、席勒等艺术大师，形成了“这个时代在政治和社会方面是可耻的，但是在德国文学方面却是伟大的”奇特局面，更不用说诞生了“千年思想家”马克思和他的战友恩格斯。值得注意的是，不可把经济落后的国家能够创造先进文化的观点绝对化。恩格斯在阐释社会意识具有相对独立性原理时指出，“不论在法国或是在德国，哲学和那个时代的普遍的学术繁荣一样，也是经济高涨的结果。经济发展对这些领域也具有最终的至上权力，这在我看来是确定无疑的”。

V. The Implications of Marx’s Examination of the Complex Relationship between Cultural Forms and the Development of the Times for Contemporary Cultural Research

五、马克思关于文化形态与时代发展复杂关联考察对当代文化研究的启示

In the *Introduction*, Marx explored the complex interrelationship between cultural forms and the development of the times. These ideas bring many important implications for contemporary Chinese cultural research, especially research on the “Second Integration.”

马克思在《导言》中探讨了文化形态与时代发展的复杂关联性，这些思想观点为当代中国文化研究，特别是关于“第二个结合”的研究，带来许多重要的启示。

First, Marx’s view that past flourishing cultures “can no longer be created in their world-historic, classical form” [68]68 Karl Marx, *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy* (1857). is highly enlightening for promoting the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture.

第一，马克思关于以往的繁盛文化“再不能以那种在世界史上划时代的、古典的形式创造出来”的观点，对推动中华优秀传统文化的创造性转化和创新性发展富有启发性。

Since any “revival” of culture, whether in ancient or modern times, in China or abroad, is essentially a culture that keeps pace with the times and is endowed with new content of the era, then the “cultural revival” currently discussed in Chinese theoretical circles is, in its essence, not a complete reappearance of ancient culture, but necessarily a new culture formed through creative development in light of the needs of the economic base and superstructure of China in the New Era. Therefore, the key issue in the discussion of integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture lies not in whether to “integrate,” nor even in why to “integrate,” but in how to “integrate.” In integrating the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture, two tendencies must be guarded against: one tendency is to treat a family treasure as a worn-out broom, dismissing Chinese traditional culture as a filthy vat of pickled vegetables. This view exaggerates the negative factors in Chinese traditional culture while ignoring its positive factors, which is detrimental to the integration of the basic tenets of Marxism with China’s fine traditional culture. The other tendency is to treat a worn-out broom as a treasure, one-sidedly exaggerating the positive elements of Chinese traditional culture, elevating them to an inappropriate height, even suggesting that socialist ideas could emerge from China’s ancient small-peasant economy. Regarding how to realize the Second Integration, General Secretary Xi Jinping has pointed out the scientific path: promoting the creative transformation and innovative development of China’s fine traditional culture. So-called “creative transformation means to transform, in accordance with the characteristics and demands of the times, those connotations that still have reference value and their outdated forms of expression, endowing them with new contemporary connotations and modern forms of expression, thereby activating their vitality. Innovative development means to supplement, expand, and perfect the connotations of China’s fine traditional culture in accordance with the new progress and developments of the times, enhancing its influence and appeal.” Marxism is an insurmountable peak in the history of human thought; “in the history of human thought, no other ideological theory has had such a broad and profound impact on humanity as Marxism.” Therefore, realizing the Second Integration requires examining China’s fine traditional culture from the standpoint, viewpoint, and method of Marxism, opposing both the trans-temporal, trans-historical, trans-class beautification of China’s fine traditional culture and the slandering of it by Western-centrists.

既然古今中外任何“复兴”的文化，本质上是与时代同行的、被赋予了新的时代内容的文化，那么，当前中国理论界讨论的“文化复兴”，就本质而言并非完全意义上的古代文化的重现，而必然是结合新时代中国的经济基础和上层建筑的需要，经过创造发展而形成的新文化。所以，关于马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合的讨论，其关键问题不在于要不要“结合”，甚至也不在于为什么“结合”，而在于怎样“结合”。把马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合，需要警惕两种倾向：一种倾向是家有珍宝，视若敝帚，把中国传统文化说成是污秽的酱缸。此论夸大了中国传统文化中的消极因素，忽略了中国传统文化中的积极因素，这不利于马克思主义基本原理同中华优秀传统文化相结合。另外一种倾向是家有敝帚，视若珍宝，片面地夸大中国传统文化中的积极成分，将其抬高到不恰当的高度，甚至认为在中国古代小农经济社会就能够产生社会主义思想。关于如何实现“第二个结合”的问题，习近平总书记指出了科学的途径，那就是推动中华优秀传统文化创造性转化和创新性发展，所谓“创造性转化，就是要按照时代特点和要求，对那些至今仍有借鉴价值的内涵和陈旧的表现形式加以改造，赋予其新的时代内涵和现代表达形式，激活其生命力。创新性发展，就是要按照时代的新进步新进展，对中华优秀传统文化的内涵加以补充、拓展、完善，增强其影响力和感召力”。马克思主义是迄今为止难以逾越的人类思想史上的高峰，“在人类思想史上，没有一种思想理论像马克思主义那样对人类产生了如此广泛而深刻的影响”。因此，实现“第二个结合”必须用马克思主义的立场、观点和方法考察中华优秀传统文化，既反对超时代、超历史、超阶级地美化中华优秀传统文化，也反对西方中心主义者抹黑中华优秀传统文化。

Second, Marx’s view that the culture of humanity’s childhood “still gives us aesthetic enjoyment, and in certain respects, it counts as a norm and an unattainable model” [69]69 This is a paraphrase of Marx’s discussion of Greek art in the *Grundrisse* (1857–1858). The exact phrasing is from the *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy*. enlightens us that China’s fine traditional culture possesses eternal charm. The spirit of China’s fine traditional culture, contained within the treasure trove of China’s fine traditional culture, still radiates a dazzling light of the times.

第二，马克思关于人类童年时代的文化“显示出永久的魅力”的观点启示我们，中华优秀传统文化具有永久的魅力，蕴含在中华优秀传统文化宝库里的中华优秀传统文化精神，仍然发出耀眼的时代光芒。

China’s fine traditional myths possess eternal charm. Lacking scientific knowledge of agriculture and animal husbandry, the ancient Chinese ancestors attributed the success or failure of harvests entirely to “Heaven,” which thus became an entity with human nature and will in their minds. The rational yet romantic ancient Chinese ancestors constructed a celestial palace centered on the “Purple Forbidden Enclosure” [70]70 In traditional Chinese astronomy and mythology, the Purple Forbidden Enclosure (紫微垣) is one of the Three Enclosures (三垣), representing the celestial palace of the supreme deity, centered on the North Star., with the “Three Enclosures, Four Symbols, and Twenty-Eight Mansions” [71]71 The Three Enclosures (三垣), Four Symbols (四象), and Twenty-Eight Mansions (二十八宿) form the framework of traditional Chinese astronomy, dividing the sky into regions for mapping celestial bodies. as its backbone—sacred, solemn, orderly, and captivating. The “Heavenly Market” and “Heavenly Street” were bustling, the “Heavenly Fields” could be tilled and woven, and lovers on opposite sides of the “Heavenly River” gazed at each other from afar, “separated by a single stretch of water, gazing in silence, words unspoken.” [72]72 A reference to the Chinese myth of the Cowherd and the Weaver Girl, separated by the Milky Way (the “Heavenly River”), who meet once a year on the seventh day of the seventh lunar month. The quoted line is from the ancient poem “Far, Far Away the Cowherd Star” (迢迢牵牛星). The rulers of ancient China, following the culture of the Purple Forbidden Enclosure, called the Imperial Palace the Forbidden City. The Forbidden City as a whole is a work of art, with carved beams and painted rafters, grand scale, majestic momentum, and a high degree of harmony and unity, thus “displaying eternal charm.” Artistic figures from ancient myths, such as Wukong and Nezha [73]73 Wukong (孙悟空) is the Monkey King from the classic novel *Journey to the West*; Nezha (哪吒) is a mythological warrior-deity from Chinese folklore, popularized in works like *Investiture of the Gods*., endowed with new contemporary spirit, can also “display eternal charm.” Furthermore, China’s fine traditional culture is a great treasure trove, containing the spirit of China’s fine traditional culture that benefits the present age. The spirit of China’s fine traditional culture belongs to China’s fine traditional culture, but China’s fine traditional culture is not directly equivalent to the spirit of China’s fine traditional culture. The spirit of China’s fine traditional culture is condensed from China’s fine traditional culture, embodying its essence. Marx’s view that Greek art from humanity’s childhood, “where it has attained its fullest development, should not, as a stage that can never recur, still give us aesthetic enjoyment” [69]69 This is a paraphrase of Marx’s discussion of Greek art in the *Grundrisse* (1857–1858). The exact phrasing is from the *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy*. points the correct direction for us to inherit and develop the spirit of China’s fine traditional culture in the New Era. The spirit of China’s fine traditional culture still “displays eternal charm” in the New Era of socialism with Chinese characteristics and is a precious spiritual treasure that contemporary people need to inherit and develop. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out that we must “integrate the essence of Marxist thought with the cream of China’s fine traditional culture.” The “cream of China’s fine traditional culture” mentioned here differs from China’s fine traditional culture and includes the spirit of China’s fine traditional culture. The gentlemanly demeanor of “As Heaven’s movement is ever vigorous, so must a gentleman ceaselessly strive for self-improvement; as Earth’s condition is ever supportive, so must a gentleman cultivate virtue to carry all things” [74]74 A classic saying from the *I Ching* (Book of Changes), often cited as a core expression of the Chinese spirit of self-improvement and moral cultivation., the righteous spirit of “Since ancient times, who has escaped death? Let me leave a loyal heart shining in the annals of history” [75]75 From the poem “Crossing the Lingding Ocean” (过零丁洋) by the Song dynasty patriot Wen Tianxiang (1236–1283)., the patriotic sentiment of “Be the first to worry about the world’s troubles and the last to enjoy its pleasures” [76]76 From the essay “Record of Yueyang Tower” (岳阳楼记) by the Song dynasty official Fan Zhongyan (989–1052)., the clean governance warning of “Looking back on the rise and fall of states past and present, success comes from thrift and failure from extravagance” [77]77 From the poem “Ode to History” (咏史) by the Tang dynasty poet Li Shangyin (813–858)., and the transcendent realm of “In poverty, one becomes firmer, never abandoning the lofty ambition” [78]78 A phrase from the *Book of the Later Han* (后汉书), describing the steadfastness of the scholar Ma Yuan (14 BCE–49 CE). left by our ancestors—these have, after thousands of years of trials, been sublimated into the spirit of China’s fine traditional culture. Mencius was not a thinker of the proletariat, but he left behind the unyielding integrity of “not being corrupted by wealth and rank, not being swayed by poverty and lowliness, not being subdued by power and force” [79]79 From the *Mencius* (孟子), a classic of Confucian philosophy.. At the level of cultural spirit, this aligns with Mao Zedong’s statement: “We Chinese have the spirit to fight the enemy to the last drop of our blood, the determination to recover our lost territory through self-reliance, and the ability to stand on our own feet among the nations of the world.” [80]80 From Mao Zedong’s speech “On the Policy of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army” (1945). In the repeated struggles against foreign aggression in modern and contemporary history, in the great War of Resistance against Japan, on the Long March, and when struck by natural disasters, the world has felt the spirit of the Chinese people—embodied in their heroic and tear-jerking tenacious struggles—of cultivating virtue to carry all things and ceaselessly striving for self-improvement.

中华优秀神话故事具有永久的魅力。华夏先民缺乏科学的农业耕作和游牧知识，收成丰歉全在于“天”，于是“天”就成为先民心目中的具有人性、意志的实体。理性而不失浪漫的华夏先民构建了一个以“紫薇垣”为中心、以“三垣四象二十八宿”为主干的天宫神阙，神圣庄严，井然有序，令人神往。“天市”“天街”熙熙攘攘，“天田”可供耕织，“天河”两岸的情人遥遥相望，“盈盈一水间，脉脉不得语”。古代中国的统治者沿袭紫禁文化，称故宫为紫禁城。故宫整体上是一件艺术品，雕梁画栋、规模宏大、气势磅礴而高度和谐统一，因而“显示出永久的魅力”。古代神话中的悟空、哪吒等艺术形象，被当代人赋予新的时代精神，同样也可以“显示出永久的魅力”。此外，中华优秀传统文化是个大宝库，蕴含了惠泽当代的中华优秀传统文化精神。中华优秀传统文化精神属于中华优秀传统文化，但中华优秀传统文化并不直接就是中华优秀传统文化精神。中华优秀传统文化精神由中华优秀传统文化凝练而成，体现了中华优秀传统文化的精髓。马克思所说的处于人类童年期的希腊艺术，“在它发展得最完美的地方，不该作为永不复返的阶段而显示出永久的魅力”的观点，为我们在新时代继承和发扬中华优秀传统文化精神指出正确的方向。中华优秀传统文化精神在中国特色社会主义的新时代依然“显示出永久的魅力”，是当代人需要继承发扬的宝贵的精神财富。习近平总书记指出，我们要“把马克思主义思想精髓同中华优秀传统文化精华贯通起来”。这里提到的“中华优秀传统文化精华”，不同于中华优秀传统文化，而是包含了中华优秀传统文化精神。我们的祖先留下的“天行健，君子以自强不息。地势坤，君子以厚德载物”的君子风范，“人生自古谁无死，留取丹心照汗青”的浩然正气，“先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐”的家国情怀，“历览前贤国与家，成由勤俭败由奢”的廉洁警示，“穷则益坚，不坠青云之志”的豁达境界等，经历几千年的风雨，升华为中华优秀文化精神。孟子不是无产阶级的思想家，但留下“富贵不能淫，贫贱不能移，威武不能屈”的凛然风骨，在文化精神层面，是与毛泽东所讲的“我们中华民族有同自己的敌人血战到底的气概，有在自力更生的基础上光复旧物的决心，有自立于世界民族之林的能力”相契合的。在近现代历史上的历次反击外国侵略的斗争中，在伟大的抗日战争中，在长征路途上，在遭遇自然灾害侵袭时，世人从中国人民可歌可泣的顽强斗争中感受到了中华民族厚德载物、自强不息的精神。

Third, Marx’s view that classical culture “still gives us aesthetic enjoyment, and in certain respects, it counts as a norm and an unattainable model” [69]69 This is a paraphrase of Marx’s discussion of Greek art in the *Grundrisse* (1857–1858). The exact phrasing is from the *Introduction to the Critique of Political Economy*. points the direction for us to inherit China’s fine traditional culture.

第三，马克思所言古典文化“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受，而且就某方面说还是一种规范和高不可及的范本”的观点，为我们传承中华优秀传统文化指明了方向。

Our ancestors left behind a vast number of classical and magnificent writings, including a great many works of Chu Ci, Han Fu, Tang poetry, Song lyrics, and Yuan opera. [81]81 The “Introduction” refers to Marx’s *Introduction to a Critique of Political Economy* (1857), also known as the *Grundrisse* introduction, where he discusses the relationship between material production and cultural forms such as art. Classical poetry in particular elevates the beauty of the Chinese language to its peak, forming a stable aesthetic style and rhetorical standard that emphasizes rhyme, tonal patterns, and parallelism, begins with allusions to classics, and creates an elegant and exquisite artistic conception, providing artistic enjoyment for the contemporary Chinese people. Within classical culture, there remain a large number of refined and concise sayings and maxims that express extremely profound principles of self-cultivation, family regulation, state governance, and world peace. While they “still give us artistic pleasure,” they offer us inspiration for cultivating moral sentiment and comprehending the great Way of the world. Laozi’s “Misfortune is that which fortune depends upon; fortune is that in which misfortune is concealed,” Confucius’s “Govern by virtue,” Zhuangzi’s “Follow the natural order, accord with its inherent nature,” Xunzi’s “Water can carry a boat, but it can also capsize it,” and Sunzi’s “Know yourself and know your enemy, and you will never be defeated in a hundred battles” have become widely circulated maxims, with refined language, profound insights, far-reaching influence, and they nourish the national character of the Chinese people. General Secretary Xi Jinping pointed out: “Chinese aesthetics emphasizes

我们的祖先留有大量经典华美篇章，留有大量的楚辞、汉赋、唐诗、宋词、元曲等，特别是古典诗词将汉语之美推向高峰，形成稳定的美学风格和修辞规范，讲究押韵平仄对仗，起笔引经据典，营造典雅优美的意境，给当代中国人民以艺术享受。在古典文化里，存留下大量精炼简洁的名言格言，表达了极为深刻的修身治国平天下的道理，在“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受”时，为我们提供了涵养道德情操、参悟世间大道的启迪。老子的“祸兮福之所倚，福兮祸之所伏”、孔子的“为政以德”、庄子的“依乎天理，因其固然”、荀子的“水则载舟，水则覆舟”以及孙子的“知己知彼，百战不殆”等，成为流传很广的格言，语言精美，观点深刻，影响深远，涵养着中国人民的民族性格。习近平总书记指出：“中华美学讲求托物言志、寓理于情，讲求言简意赅、凝练节制，讲求形神兼备、意境深远，强调知、情、意、行相统一。”我们必须大胆地继承这种“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受，而且就某方面说还是一种规范和高不可及的范本”的优秀文化。中华优秀传统文化中有一部分是承载传统文化的实体性设施，如万里长城、都江堰、大运河、故宫等气势恢宏的伟大工程，属于“规范和高不可及的范本”，与社会生产力直接联系，不属于意识形态的范畴，可以直接为改革和社会主义现代化建设服务。此外，祖先们发明的造纸术、火药、印刷术、指南针等，深刻影响人类文明进程；先人们创造的雕镌、编织、剪刻、琴棋、书画、扎糊、染绣、塑作、烹饪等工艺精妙绝伦，彰显着中国古代人民的勤劳智慧和创造力；祖辈们留给我们的春节、清明节、端午节、中秋节等传统节日，具有丰富的文化内涵，承载着中国人民独特的美好情愫和坚定的民族文化认同。所有这些“仍然能够给我们以艺术享受，而且就某方面说还是一种规范和高不可及的范本”。

Fourth, Marx’s view that culture is “combined with a definite form of social development” inspires us to note that the content and form of culture in different eras possess temporal differences.

第四，马克思关于文化“同一定社会发展形式结合在一起”的观点，启发我们要注意不同时代文化的内容和形式具有时代差异性。

Since “a definite form of social development” has temporal characteristics, we must be adept at distinguishing the temporal content and substantive meaning of ancient and modern concepts, and not make simplistic, superficial, verbal comparisons. The connotations of many concepts differ greatly between ancient, modern, and contemporary times. In the preface to *The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte*, Marx opposed the German practice of making superficial comparisons that disregarded the historical content of concepts, reminding people to note the temporal differences in the connotations of the concept of class struggle between ancient and modern times: “Because of this fundamental difference between ancient and modern class struggles in terms of material economic conditions, the commonalities between the political monsters produced by these struggles can be no greater than those between the Archbishop of Canterbury and the High Priest Samuel.” In the contemporary era, we can still derive artistic enjoyment from the tonal patterns, allusions, and artistic conceptions of classical poetry, and quote concise classical verses in speeches and writing to enhance persuasiveness and appeal. Therefore, in dealing with traditional culture, we must adopt a discriminating approach and a critical inheritance, “requiring not only passing down the torch from generation to generation and guarding it from age to age, but also advancing with the times and daring to innovate.” In accordance with the new demands of continuous progress in the times, in terms of cultural content and form, we must promote the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture, activating its vitality.

既然“一定社会发展形式”具有时代特点，那么要善于区别古今概念的时代内容和含义实质，不可作简单的肤浅的字句上的比附。许多概念的内涵在古代、近代和当代的差异很大。在《路易·波拿巴的雾月十八日》的序言中，马克思反对德国流行的不顾概念的历史内涵仅作肤浅比附的做法，提醒人们要注意古今阶级斗争概念内涵的时代差异，“由于古代阶级斗争同现代阶级斗争在物质经济条件方面存在这样的根本区别，由这种斗争所产生的政治怪物之间的共同点也就不可能比坎特伯雷大主教与最高祭司撒母耳之间的共同点更多”。在当代，我们依然可以在旧诗词的平仄、用典、意境中获得艺术的享受，在讲话和写作时引用言简意赅的古典诗句以增强说服力和感染力。所以，对待传统文化要坚持有鉴别的对待、有扬弃的继承，“既需要薪火相传、代代守护，更需要与时俱进、勇于创新”。要按照时代不断进步的新要求，在文化的内容和形式方面，推动中华优秀传统文化创造性转化、创新性发展，激活其生命力。

In summary, Marx examined the complex relationship between the times and culture in the *Introduction*, putting forward extremely valuable theses that shine with the light of truth, providing an inspiring approach for the discussion on the “Second Integration.” This is a path for promoting the creative transformation and innovative development of fine traditional Chinese culture, and also a path for the reconstruction of Chinese culture under the guidance of Marxism.

总之，马克思在《导言》中考察了时代与文化的复杂关联，提出了极为宝贵的论点，闪耀着真理的光芒，为关于“第二个结合”的讨论提供了富有启发性的进路。这是一条推动中华优秀传统文化创造性转化、创新性发展之路，也是一条坚持马克思主义为指导的中华文化再造之路。

Web editor: Paul

网络编辑：保罗